从跨文化的观点看国际并购及竞争优势的关系以阿尔卡特及上海贝尔合并为例精选 62页

从跨文化的观点看国际并购及竞争优势的关系——以阿尔卡特及上海贝尔合并为例广西师范大学硕士学位论文从跨文化的观点看国际并购与竞争优势的关系以阿尔卡特与上海贝尔合并为例姓名秦海涛申请学位级别硕士专业英语语言文学指导教师钟国仕20060401 从跨文化的观点看国际并购与竞争优势的关系---以阿尔卡特与上海贝尔合并为例二00三级英语语言文学专业研究生秦海涛导师钟国仕摘要20世纪90年代后半期全球并购活动达到了前所未有的高潮随着我国市场经济的不断发展我国的并购活动正以70左右的速度高速增长成为全球并购市场的一个亮点2002年法国电信公司阿尔卡特与上海贝尔合并作为公司一名员工本人见证了阿尔卡特与上海贝尔合并的整个过程以及合并后各个方面运作情况作为一名研究生在 广泛阅读了跨文化交际及多元化管理的有关书籍后对这个合并及合并后的运作情况进行反思与研究旨在通过阿尔卡特与上海贝尔合并的成功案例分析跨国并购中的潜在问题及如何处理文化差异并妥善处理文化冲突消除文化障碍有效地进行交流从文化差异中受益把看来是障碍的东西变成一种竞争优势的来源丰富对跨文化差异的感性认识培养跨文化理念提高跨文化交际能力从而确保合并企业的运作成功作者认为并购与竞争是全球化的产物并购有其优势但并购后公司的运作及管理也有相应的风险及难度这些跨国并购对中国公司来讲将面临前所未有的挑战表现 在中国公司还不熟悉海外的市场缺少跨国与跨文化管理的经验企业并购最大的障碍是来自文化方面在中国经济越来越融入国际的今天不管是走出去的中国企业还是走进来的外国企业跨文化的冲突已经变成一个不得不面对的现实问题作者还认为管理既是科学又是艺术但归根到底是一种文化现象任何管理方法的使用任何企业的经营都离不开所处的文化环境因此作为公司的管理层一定要树立跨文化理念的培养提高跨文化交际能力积累多元文化的管理经验从而提高管理艺术文章分为四章第一章介绍了国际并购的背景及相关内容第二章介绍相关文化理 论知识第三章着重分析了合并后企业的员工文化背景如何影响公司的运作情况及文化的竞争优势第四章结语关键词国际并购全球化文化文化差异iTheRelationshipbetweenInternationalMergerAcquisitionandCompetitiveAdvantageinCross-CulturalPerspective-------ACaseStudyoftheAcquisitionofShanghaiBellbyAlcatelPostgraduateQinHaitaoMajorEnglishLanguageandLiteratureGrade2003ResearchOrientationESPSupervisorZhongGuoshi AbstractSincethelate1990soneoftheconsequencesofglobalizationhasbeenthetremendousincreaseinthenumberofmergersandacquisitionsacrosstheworldnowreachinganunprecedentedlyhighwaveWiththedevelopmentoftheChinesemarketeconomysomestatisticsshowthatinternationalmergersandacquisitionsIMAsareincreasingatahighspeedof70becomingahighlightinthecross-bordermergersallovertheworldAlcatelFranceacquiredShanghaiBellChinain2002Asanemployee ofAlcatelIwitnessedthewholeprocessoftheacquisitionAfteranextensivereadingofbooksoninternationalcommunicationandmulticulturalmanagementImadeastudyofthecompanysoperationbeforeandaftertheacquisitionAfteranalyzingthissuccessfulacquisitioncaseIwouldliketodescribetheculturaldifferencesandpotentialdifficultiesintheIMAhopingtooffersuggestionsonhowtomanageculturalshockandcommunicateeffectivelyandaimingatunderstandinghowwecanbenefitfromcultural differenceswhichareoftenseenasobstaclesbutcanbeasourceofcompetitiveadvantageThisthesisisasurveyofcross-culturalintegrationandmanagementandtriestohelppeopleimprovethesensitivityandcompetenciesofcross-culturalcommunicationAllthesetopicsarediscussedfromtheperspectiveofcross-cultureThewriterbelievesthatcompetitionacquisitionsandmergersaretheconsequencesofglobalizationTheacquisitionsandmergershavetheiradvantagesHoweverChinesecompaniesarefacingunprecedentedchallengesbecauseoffrustrationsandhighrisksinIMAsForinstanceChinesecompanies arenotfamiliarwithoverseasmarketsInsteadtheylackofexperienceincross-culturalmanagementItisrecognizedthatthecultureissueisthemostdifficultproblemtohandleincross-bordermergersAsthebusinessiiorganizationstridesforwardtointernationalizationculturaldifferencesturnouttobethemainproblemtosolveManagementisanartaswellasascienceButinthefinalanalysisitisthephenomenonofcultureWhatevermanagementmethodsareusedinwhichevercompanywecantignoretheculturalenvironmentThereforeweshouldsetupthemindsetofcross-cultureaccumulate multiculturalmanagementexperienceandimprovetheartofmulticulturalmanagementThisthesisisdividedintofourchaptersThefirstchapterintroducestheinternationalmergersandacquisitionsbackgroundThesecondchapterdescribestheculturaltheoriesThethirdchapteranalyzeshowtheemployeesdifferentbasicculturesimpacttherunningofthecompanyandtheculturaladvantagesinIMAThelastchaptergivesconcludingremarksandofferssomesuggestionsKeywordsInternationalMergerandAcquisitionIMA GlobalizationCultureCulturaldifferencesiii论文独创性声明本人郑重声明所提交的学位论文是本人在导师的指导下进行的研究工作及取得的成果除文中已经注明引用的内容外本论文不含其他个人或其他机构已经发表或撰写过的研究成果对本文的研究作出重要贡献的个人和集体均已在文中以明确方式标明本人承担本声明的法律责任研究生签名日期论文使用授权声明 本人完全了解广西师范大学有关保留使用学位论文的规定广西师范大学中国科学技术信息研究所清华大学论文合作部有权保留本人所送交学位论文的复印件和电子文档可以采用影印缩印或其他复制手段保存论文本人电子文档的内容和纸质论文的内容相一致除在保密期内的保密论文外允许论文被查阅和借阅可以公布包括刊登论文的全部或部分内容论文的公布包括刊登授权广西师范大学学位办办理研究生签名日期导师签名日期Chapter1IMAandItsBackground 11GlobalizationLikeitornotthefactofglobalizationiseverywhereInrecenttwentyyearseverycountryhasfacedinternationalcompetitioninglobalmarketTimeanddistanceareshrinkingrapidlywiththeadventoffastercommunicationtransportationandfinancialflowsProductsdevelopedinonecountryarefindingenthusiasticacceptanceinothercountriesThefirmthatstaysathometoplayitsafemightnotonlyloseitschancetoenterothermarketsbutalsoriskslosingitshomemarketespeciallyconsideringChinasrecentegregiousachievementOnekeyaspectofglobalizationischangesintechnologyparticularlyintransportationand communicationswhichareincreasinglycreatingaglobalvillageGlobalizationhasbecomeidentifiedwithanumberoftrendsmostofwhichmayhavedevelopedsinceWorldWarIITheseincludegreaterinternationalmovementofcommoditiesmoneyinformationandpeopleandthedevelopmentoftechnologyorganizationslegalsystemsandinfrastructurestoallowthismovementTheactualexistenceofsomeofthesetrendsisdebatedInthefaceofglobalizationmanycompaniesattempttoexpandtheirsalesintoforeignmarketsInternationalexpansionprovidesnewandpotentiallymoreprofitablemarketshelpsincreasethefirmscompetitiveness andfacilitatesaccesstonewproductideasmanufacturinginnovationsandthelatesttechnologyGlobalizationistheprocessbywhichfirmsoperateonaglobalbasisorganizingtheirstructurecapabilitiesresourcesandpeopleinsuchawayastoaddresstheworldasasinglemarketItisnaturalhoweverthatmarketingpracticeswillvaryfromcountrytocountryascultureeconomicandsocialcircumstancesandsocietalinfrastructurearedifferentThesedifferencesmeanthatasuccessfulmarketingapproachinonecountrywillnotautomaticallyworkinanothercountryCustomerpreferencescompetitiondistributionchannelsandcommunicationsmediadifferGlobalmarketingrequiresmarketersto behaveinwaysthatareglobalandlocalatthesametimebyrespondingtosimilaritiesanddifferencesinvariousmarketsAnimportanttaskinglobalmarketingislearningtorecognizetheextenttowhichmarketingplansandprogramsmightbestandardizedworldwideaswellastheextenttowhichtheyneedtobeadaptedDealKennedy199918ThedecisiontoentermarketsoutsidethehomecountrydependsonafirmsresourcesmanagerialattitudesandthenatureandextentofopportunitiesandthreatsThisgivesrisetoimportantthemesininternationalmarketingmarketentrypartneringandstrategicalliancesmanagingacrossbordersgraymarkets Withglobalizationbecomingacenterpieceinthebusinessstrategyofmanyfirmsintodays１knowledgeintensiveeconomyisoneofthekeystosustainablecompetitivenessButinthecontextofglobalmarketingthemanagementofknowledgeisdefactoacross-culturalactivitywhosekeytaskistofosterandcontinuallyupgradecollaborativecross-culturallearningOfcoursethekindandortypeofknowledgethatisstrategicforanorganizationandwhichneedsbemanagedforcompetitivenessvariesdependingonthebusinesscontextandthevalueofdifferenttypesofknowledgeassociatedwithit 12InternationalMergerandAcquisitionIMAAstheprogressoftheglobalizationtheinternationalcooperationandsanctionsbecomemoreandmorefamiliartousInternationalMergersandAcquisitionsIMAsiscurrentlythemostpopularformofforeigninvestmentintheworldeconomyInthelate1990soneoftheconsequencesofglobalizationwasthetremendousincreaseinthenumberofmergersandacquisitionsreachinganunprecedentedlyhightideButtherewasonly25-30successrateforIMAs张翼2005DespitethisstatisticthenumberofIMAshastremendouslyincreasedinrecentyearsworldwideresultingineconomicglobalizationMore oftheseareexpectedtoriseinthenearfutureespeciallyinChinaSomeofthefourmainreasonsforthispopularphenomenonintheworldeconomyareasfollows1toseekprofitsThefinalgoalofcompaniesincludingmultinationalcompaniesistoseekimumprofitsMergerandAcquisitionisoneoftheformstoenlargereproductionTheinitialreasonforthispatternscomingintobeingwasbornofentrepreneursintentiontoseekfortheimumprofitsBymeansofIMAmultinationalcompaniesmayimprovetheeconomicscaleandproductqualitiesandreducethecostofproductstogainmoreprofit ThereforeentrepreneurschoosethisstrategyofIMA2ToimprovecompetitivenessTheotherreasonforIMAwasbornofgreatcompetitivepressureSurvivalofthefittestistheruleofmarketeconomyThereforemultinationalcorporationstrytheirbestwaystoreducecoststoachievemorechancesofsuccess3ToincreaseToincreaseisthemostimportantreasonforInternationalMergersandAcquisitionsIMAsprovidemultinationalcorporationschancesforfastincreaseintheworldeconomicwave4TechnologyTechnologyisoneofthefactorsaffectingtheIMAsInordertotake advantageoftechnologycorporationsadvancedintechnologymaychoosetheIMAstrategythecorporationsdisadvantagedintechnologymayengageinIMAwithadvantagedcorporationstoimprovecompetitivenessaswell黄晋2006IMAforChinesedomesticenterprisesisboundtobefulloffrustrationsandhighrisksBut２iftheydonotstepintooverseasmarketsChineseenterprisesmayfacemorerisksIngeneralChinesecompaniesarenotfamiliarwithoverseasmarketsandlackexperienceincross-culturalmanagementThereforeChineseentrepreneursarefacingunprecedentedchallengesIMAisa verycomplexprocessIthasitsownpeculiaroriginsandcharacteristicsofoccurrenceanddevelopmentItssuccessorfailureiscloselyinterrelatedwithpoliticseconomicscultureevenwiththemilitaryIMAisnotabedofrosesCulturalintegrationisthemostdifficulttaskaftercross-bordermergerandacquisitionIgnoringormishandlingdifferencescanresultininabilitytoretainandmotivateemployeesmisreadingthepotentialofcross-borderalliancesandfailuretobuildsustainablesourcesofcompetitiveadvantage13CompaniesProfileAlcatelacompanysetupbyanengineerPierreAzariain1898isthebiggest telecommunicationcompanyintheworldwithoperationsin130countriesShanghaiBellCoLtdisamodernizedtelecommunicationandinformationenterprisefoundedin1984ThroughdevelopmentinthepasteighteenyearsShanghaiBellhasbecomeoneofthepillarenterprisesinChinasmoderntelecommunicationindustryIn2002AcatelacquiredShanghaiBellAlcatelsannualfinancialreportsonthenetshowthatthesalesofAlcatelaregrowingfastespeciallyduringtherecentthreeyearsaftertheacquisitionIn2003AlcatelwasonthepathtorecoveryIn2004Alcatelearned??23billioneurosinsaleswithanetprofitof??81milliondespiteastillunstabletelecommunicationmarketItwasapivotalyearwhich provedthattheeffortsofthepreviousfewyearspaidoffThefirsthalfof2005was??7520growingfasterthaneverbeforewhileAlcatelShanghai-Bellssalesincreasedataspeedof20everyyearaftertheacquisitionThecompanyreceivedthe2005ChinaQualityManagementAwardCQMApresentedbytheChinesecentralgovernmentforitsexcellentqualitymanagementandbusinessperformanceAlcatelShanghaiBellisthefirsttelecomsolutionsproviderinChinatoreceivethisspecialhonorInallAlcatelShanghaiBellistastingthefruitfulresultofobtaining50profitsShanghaiBellandAlcatelactuallyarerivalsinthemarketandbothofthemhavetheirown outstandingproductsbuttheysmoothlyestablishedacorporativerelationshipSunYongjian200514ResearchMotivesItclaimsthatthemergersandacquisitionswillincreaserevenuesearningscashflowthevalueofstockholdersandwillbenefitsocietyWhilecompetitorsmayreplicateaproductand３practicesitisextremelytoughtoimitateacompanyspurposevaluesandnormsthatdrivechoicesandactionsinotherwordsthecultureDifficultiesencounteredinIMAsareoftenamplifiedin cross-culturalsituationswhenthecompaniesinvolvedarefromtwoormorecountriesAsthebusinessorganizationstridesforwardtointernationalizationculturaldifferencesturnouttobethefirstproblemtofaceTherearemanywaysofexaminingculturaldifferencesandtheirimpactoninternationalmanagementCulturecanaffecttechnologytransfermanagerialattitudesmanagerialideologyandevenbusiness-governmentrelationsPerhapsitisthemostimportantthatcultureaffectshowpeoplethinkandbehaveTheneedtorecognizeandmanageotherculturesisanimportantelementinthiseraofglobalizationThereforethisresearchaimsat 1providingasurveyofthestrategiesregardingcompetitiveadvantageandcross-culturalintegrationandtherelevanttheories2describingthesuccessfulacquisitionofAlcatel-ShanghaiBellbyovercomingthecross-culturaldifferencesinIMA3analyzingmeasuresadoptedincross-bordermanagement4obtainingadeeperinsightintothecross-culturalissuesanditsimportancetobeconsideredinamulti-culturalenvironment４Chapter2CulturalReviewinRelationtoIMAWehavealreadyindicatedthatthesuccessorfailureofIMAis alsocloselyinterrelatedwithcultureandculturaldifferencesshouldnotbeignoredormishandledintheprocessofIMANowinthischaptertheconceptofculturewillbedefinedthemajorcomponentsofculturewillbedescribedandsomeculturaltheorieswillbediscussed21CultureThemultifacetednatureofculturemakesitdifficulttoarriveatasingledefinitionforitAsearlyas1952ALKroeberandClydeKluckhohnlisted164definitionsofculturethattheyfoundintheliteratureandmanynewdefinitionshaveappearedsinceDefinitionsofculturerangefromall-encompassingonestonarrowerones WewillexaminesomeofthesedefinitionsinordertobetterunderstandtheroleofcultureininterculturalcommunicationPerhapsthebroadestofalldefinitionsisoneproposedbyEAdamsonHoebelandEverettFrostwhoseecultureinnearlyallhumanactivityTheydefinecultureasanintegratedsystemoflearnedbehaviorpatternswhicharecharacteristicofthemembersofasocietyandwhicharenottheresultofbiologicalinheritanceForthemcultureisnotgeneticallypredeterminedorinstinctiveTheyhavetworeasonsfortakingthispositionFirstasallscholarsofculturebelievecultureistransmittedandmaintainedsolelythrough communicationandlearningthatiscultureislearnedSecondasscholarswhotakesweepingviewbelieveeachindividualisconfinedatbirthtoaspecificgeographiclocationandthusexposedtocertainmessageswhiledeniedothersAllofthesemessageswhethertheybeaboutreligionfooddresshousingtoysorbooksareculturallybasedthereforeeverythingthatapersonexperiencesispartofhisorhercultureSamovarPorter199547FromadefinitionthatincludesalllearnedbehaviorwecanmovetodefinitionsthatproposethatculturehasdistinctboundariesButhereagainscholarsdonotagreeSomesuchas HarryTriandistakeanexpansiveviewofculturesuggestingthatitcanbedistinguishedashavingbothobjectiveandsubjectiveaspectsThosewhodefinecultureinthiswaylookatwhataculturedoestoitsenvironmentaswellaswhatitdoestoitsmembersHofstedeviewsculturefromapsychologicalperspectivedefiningitasthecollectiveprogrammingofthemindwhichdistinguishesthemembersofonecategoryofpeoplefromanotherBothofthesedefinitionsstressthementalconditioningthatculturalexperiencesimposeTriandis1980Hofstede2001BecausecultureiscomplexanddifficulttopindownmostdefinitionsarelengthyandareusuallyfollowedbyratherdetaileddescriptionsAgood exampleofanall-inclusiveand５descriptivedefinitionistheoneadvancedbyDanielBatesandFredPlogCultureisasystemofsharedbeliefsvaluescustomsbehaviorsandartifactsthatthemembersofsocietyusetocopewiththeirworldandwithoneanotherandthataretransmittedfromgenerationtogenerationthroughlearningThisdefinitionincludesnotonlypatternsofbehaviorbutalsopatternsofthoughtsharedmeaningsthatthemembersofasocietyattachtovariousphenomenanaturalandintellectualincludingreligionandideologiesartifactstools potteryhousesmachinesworksofartandtheculturallytransmittedskillsandtechniquesusedtomaketheartifactsBatesPlog19907AlthoughtheBatesandPlogdefinitionisbroadenoughtoincludemostofthemajorterritoryofculturewehavearrivedatadefinitionthatwebelieveismoresuitedtothegoalsofthisresearchSamovarandPorterdefinecultureasthedepositofknowledgeexperiencebeliefsvaluesattitudesmeaningshierarchiesreligionnotionsoftimerolesspatialrelationsconceptsoftheuniverseandmaterialobjectsandpossessionsacquiredbyagroupofpeopleinthecourseofgenerationsthroughindividualandgroupstrivingCulturecan thereforeincludeeverythingfromritesofpassagetoconceptsofthesoulTheycontinueThinkforjustamomentofallthebeliefsyouholdandtheobjectsthathavemeaningforyoubecauseyouareamemberofyourcultureHowyourespondtotheAmericanflagasopposedtotheCanadianflagispartofyourculturalmembershipYourviewsonworkfreedomagebeinggradedbyyourteacherscleanlinessandhygieneethicsdresspropertyrightsetiquettehealingandhealthdeathandmourningplaylawmagicandsuperstitionmodestysexstatusdifferentiationcourtshipformalityandinformalitybodilyadornmentandthelikearepartof yourculturalmembershipSamovarPorter19954722FunctionsandCharacteristicsofCultureTheanthropologistWilliamHavilandsuggeststhatpeoplemaintainculturestodealwithproblemsormattersthatconcernthemHaviland1999ItisbelievedthatcultureevolvedforthesamereasonitservesthebasicneedoflayingoutapredictableworldinwhicheachofusisfirmlygroundedandthusenablesustomakesenseofoursurroundingsAstheEnglishwriterThomasFullerwrotetwohundredyearsagoCulturemakesallthingseasyAlthoughthisviewmightbeslightlyoverstatedculturedoeseasethetransitionfromthewombtothisnewlifeby givingmeaningtoeventsobjectsandpeople---thusmakingtheworldalessmysteriousandfrighteningplaceFromtheinstantachildisborncultureformallyandinformallyteachesithowtobehaveinamannerthatisacceptabletoadultsandthatgarnersthemrewardsThereforethereisno６needformembersofaculturetoexpendenergydecidingwhateacheventmeansorhowtorespondtoitusuallyallthosewhoshareacommonculturecanbeexpectedtobehavecorrectlyautomaticallyandpredictablyHencecultureshieldspeoplefromtheunknownbyofferingthem ablueprintforalloflifesactivitiesTrytoimagineasingledayinyourlifewithouthavingtheguidelinesofyourcultureWithoutrulestogovernyouractionsyouwouldsoonfeehelplessFromhowtogreetstrangerstohowfindamatecultureprovidesuswithstructureTolackcultureistolackstructurewithoutthemwewouldbeintellectuallydefenselessflounderinganimalsinanunfathomablerealmWemightevengosofarastoagreewithMarvinHarristhatourprimarymodeofbiologicaladaptationisculturenotanatomyHarris1999Cultureteacheseachofushowtomaketomakethemostofthewisdomourspecieshasaccumulatedthroughmillionsofyearsofevolution InadditiontomakingtheworldalessperplexingplaceculturesMalinowskimaintainshavenowevolvedtothepointwheretheyarepeoplesprimarymeansofsatisfyingthreetypesofneedsbasicneedsfoodshelterphysicalprotectionderivedneedsorganizationofworkdistributionoffooddefensesocialcontrolandintegrativeneedspsychologicalsecuritysocialharmonypurposeinlifeAsweshallseethroughoutthisresearchthemethodsformeetingtheseandotherneedsmightvaryfromculturetoculturebutthereasonspeopleturntothemremainthesametohelpthemsurviveemotionallyandphysicallySamovarPorter 199546Itisimportanttobeginanexaminationofthecharacteristicsofculturebynotingthatwithineachculturetherearenumerousco-culturesandspecializedculturesWhenwerefertocultureweareapplyingthetermtothedominantculturefoundineachsocietyWhilemanydiscussionsofcultureusethetermsumbrellacultureandmainstreamculturewepreferthedesignatedominantwhichclearlyindicatesthattheculturewearetalkingaboutistheoneinpowerThesearethepeoplewhohistoricallyhavecontrolledandwhostillcontrolthemajorinstitutionswithintheculturethechurchgovernmenteducationmilitarymassmedia monetarysystemsandthelikeBydeterminingandmanipulatingthecontentandflowofmessagesaswellasthelawsgeneratedbytheseinstitutionsthedominantculturesetsgoalsperpetuatescustomsestablishesvaluesandmakesthemajordecisionsaffectingthemajorityofthepopulationThustheyinfluencewhatpeoplethinkandsayByexaminingthecharacteristicsofcultureyouwillbeabletoseehowthisonegroupofpeopleregardlessoftheirnumberscandominatethefundofknowledgeperceptionsandcommunicationpatternsfoundwithinacultureSamovarPorter19954823Cross-CulturalCommunication ７Whendoescommunicationbecomecross-culturalcommunicationWhatdistinguishescross-culturalcommunicationfromcommunicationthatisnotcross-culturalWhatdoesitmeantobeacompetentcross-culturalcommunicationBycombiningthemeaningofcommunicationandcultureweofferthefollowingdefinitionofcross-culturalcommunicationCross-culturalcommunicationoccurswhenlargeandimportantculturaldifferencescreatedissimilarinterpretationsandexpectationsabouthowtocommunicatecompetently Thedegreetowhichindividualsdifferisthedegreetowhichthereiscross-culturalnessinagiveninstanceofcommunicationSituationsinwhichtheindividualsareverydifferentfromoneanotheraremostinterculturalwhereasthoseinwhichtheindividualsareverysimilartooneantherareleastinterculturalCompetentinterpersonalcommunicationisaworthyandoftenelusivegoalInterpersonalcompetenceininterculturalinteractionsisanevenmoredifficultobjectivetoachievebecauseculturaldifferencescreatedissimilarmeaningsandexpectationsthatrequireevengreaterlevelsofcommunicationskillWebaseourunderstandingofinterculturalcompetenceontheworkof scholarswhohavestudiedcommunicativecompetencefromaprimarilycross-culturalperspectiveandontheconclusionsofotherscholarswhohavestudiedinterculturalcompetenceThestudyofcross-culturalcompetencehasbeenmotivatedprimarilybypracticalconcernsBusinessesgovernmentagenciesandeducationalinstitutionswanttoselectpeopleforinterculturalassignmentswhowillbesuccessfulLackofcross-culturalcompetencemeansfailedbusinessventuresgovernmentprojectsthathavenotachievedtheirobjectivesandunsuccessfullearningexperiencesforstudentsLustigKoester199862 Fourapproacheshavebeenusedtoinvestigatecross-culturalcompetencethetraitapproachtheperceptualapproachthebehavioralapproachandthecultural-specificapproachEachofthemaddstoourunderstandingofinterculturalcompetenceThetraitapproachtocross-culturalcompetenceattemptstoidentifythekindsofpersonalitycharacteristicsandindividualtraitsthatallowapersontoavoidfailureandachievesuccessincross-culturalencountersThisapproachexaminessuchcharacteristicsasflexibilityinthinkingworld-mindednesswhichisapositiveattitudetowardpeopleofotherculturespsychologicalandsocialadjustmentinonesowncultureandrelativisticvaluesItiseasytounderstandwhy thetraitapproachhasbeensocompellingIfthetraitsandattributesofpeoplewhoarealreadycompetentcross-culturalcommunicatorscouldbeidentifiedwhoseindividualscouldbeselectedastheinterculturalrepresentativesofbusinessesandgovernmentsTheperceptualapproachtocross-culturalcompetenceattemptstoidentifyclustersof８cognitionsorperceptionsthatarerelatedtointerculturalcompetencetheabilitytodealwithpsychologicalstresstocommunicateeffectivelyandtoestablishinterpersonalrelationshipsTheperceptualapproachunderscorestheimportanceoftheemotionalormotivationaldimensionin theskillfulenactmentofcompetentbehaviorsThebehavioralapproachsuggeststhatitisnecessarytogobeyondwhatpeoplethinkthywilldoininterculturalinteractionsandobservewhattheyactuallydoCross-culturalcompetencefromthisperspectiveisbeststudiedbylookingatspecificcommunicationbehaviorsduringinterculturalinteractionsThefourapproachestocross-culturalcompetencetakentogethersuggestthatcross-culturalcommunicationisacomplexphenomenonMoreimportantlyavarietyofpersonalandinterpersonalcomponentsmustbeconsideredLustigKoester199864-65 24ContextandCommunicationCulturescanalsobedistinguishedbywhethertheyemployhigh-orlow-contextcommunicationOneofthemostinterestingisasetofbroaddistinctionsdevelopedbyEdwardHallandotherswhichdistinguishesculturesintermsofhowmuchattentionpeopleinthatculturepaytothecontextinwhichcommunicationisoccurringinordertoderivemeaningFollowingtableillustratesthedifferencesinhigh-orlow-contextcommunicationTable1HighandLowContextCulturesLowContextCulturesHighContextCultures ·Informationmustbeprovided·MuchinformationisdrawnfromexplicitlyusuallyinwordsPeoplesurroundingsverylittlemustbepreferdetailedbackgroundinformationexplicitlytransferredandexplicitandcarefuldirectionsfromEnvironmentsituationgesturesandsomeonewhoknowsmoodarealltakenintoaccount·Peoplearelessawareofnonverbal·Nonverbalcuesandsignalsarecuesenvironmentandsituationveryimportantfrodeterminingmeaning ·Peoplemaylackwell-developed·PeoplemaintainextensiveinformationnetworksNetworks·Peopletendtosegmentand·ThephysicalcontextisheavilycompartmentalizeinformationrelieduponformeaningMeaningisKnowledgeisacommodityoutthereandavailabletoanyone·Peoplecontrolinformationonwhocanreadthesituation９aneed-to-knowbasis·Informationflowsfreely SourceRiallw199937InhighcontextculturesmuchattentionispaidtothecircumstancessurroundingaspokenstatementThesemightincludethespeakersstatusnonverbalbehaviorrelationshiptothelistenerthebackgroundtothesubjectortopicofthestatementandsoforthTheseandotherelementsofthecontextorsituationwithinwhichthestatementexistsareusedtohelpinterpretitsmeaningInlowcontextculturesmostofthesecontextualaspectsarefilteredoutInsteadattentiontendstofocusonthewordsaloneandtheobjectivefactstheyconveyseetable1above Highcontextcommunicationrequiresastrongerrelationshipbetweenthepartiesthanthemoreliteral-mindedlowcontextformIfbothpartieshavethisstrongrelationshipandsharesufficientcontextthenhigh-contextcommunicationcanbefasterandmoreeffectivethanlow-contextcommunicationButoftenpartiesdonothaveacommoncontextandmiscommunicationoccursAndevenwhenthepartiesrecognizethisdifficultyittakestimetodeveloptherelationship-andhencetheappropriatefacilitatingcontextbetweenthemRiallw199937-38Tolearnmoreaboutculturaldifferenceswearerequiredtoknowsomethingaboutcultural dimensionsWebelieveHofstedesunderstandingofculturaldimensionsandTrompenaarsarealsoreasonableDescriptionsoftheirfindingswillbegiveninthefollowingsections25HofstedesCulturalDimensionsMostoftodaysworkonculturaldimensionsisbasedonHofstedesresearchinthisareaHofstedesimpressivestudiesofculturaldifferencesinwork-relatedvalueorientationsofferapproachestounderstandingtherangeofculturaldifferencesHofstedesapproachisbasedontheassertionthatpeoplecarrymentalprogramsthataredevelopedduringtheideasofcultureandareexpressedthroughitsdominantvaluesThroughtheoreticalreasoningandstatistical analysisHofstedeidentifiedfivedimensionsalongwhichdominantpatternsofculturerangeHistopfourareIndividualismvsCollectivismIndividualismisthetendencyofpeopletoputtheirowninterestsandthoseoftheirimmediatefamilybeforeothersHofstedestudiedthisculturaldifferenceonabipolarcontinuumwithindividualismononeendandcollectivismontheotherCollectivismisthetendencyofpeopletobelongtogroupsorcollectivesandtocontainwell-definedsocialnetworksinwhich１０ peopleareexpectedtoputthegoodofthegroupaheadoftheirownpersonalfreedominterestsorsuccessTheeffectofindividualismandcollectivismcanbemeasuredinanumberofdifferentwaysHofstedefoundinwealthycountrieshavehigherindividualismandpoorercountrieshighercollectivismPowerDistancePowerdistancedemonstrateshowtheculturegroupadaptstoinequalitiesamongitsmembersCountriesinwhichpeopleblindlyobeytheordersoftheirsuperiorshavehighpowerdistanceWhenpowerdistancesarerelativelyhighhierarchical differencesaremorerespectedManagersareexpectedtomakedecisionsautocraticallyIntheworkplacesubordinatesexpecttobetoldwhattodoandtheidealbossisexpectedtobeabenevolentautocratOrganizationsareoftenhighlycentralizedunderthecontrolofabossIncultureswherepowerdistancesarerelativelylowtheoppositeconnotationsapplyTheeffectofthisdimensioncanbemeasuredinanumberofwaysForexampleorganizationsinlowpowerdistancecountriesgenerallyhaveflatterorganizationstructuresTheseorganizationsalsowillhaveasmallerproportionofsupervisorypersonnelandthelower strataoftheworkforceoftenwillconsistofhighlyqualifiedpeopleBycontrastorganizationsinhighpowerdistancecountrieshavetallorganizationstructuresandwillhavealargeproportionofsupervisorypersonnelUncertaintyAvoidanceUncertaintyavoidanceistheextenttowhichpeoplefeelthreatenedbyambiguoussituationsandtheneedforformalrulesPeoplewhodonotlikeuncertaintytendtohaveahighneedforsecurityandastrongbeliefinexpertsandtheirknowledgeCultureswithlowuncertaintyavoidancehavepeoplewhoshowtoleranceofgreatdegreesofambiguityTheyaremorewilling toacceptthatlifeisassociatedwiththeunknownCountrieswithhighuncertaintyavoidancecultureshaveagreatdealofstructuringoforganizationalactivitiesmorewrittenruleslessrisktakingbymanagersandlessambitiousemployeesLowuncertaintyavoidancesocietieshaveorganizationsettingwithlessstructuringofactivitiesfewerwrittenrulesmorerisktakingbymanagersandmoreambitiousemployeesTheorganizationencouragespersonneltousetheirowninitiativeandassumeresponsibilityfortheiractionsMasculinityvsFemininityAccordingtoHofstedesdefinitionsthegenderrolesofmasculinity societiesaremorerigidthanthoseoffemininesocietiesHofstedemeasuredthisdimensiononacontinuumrangingfrommasculinitytofemininityMoremasculinesocietiestendtohaveoccupationsrestrictedto１１womenWomenaregenerallyexpectedtostayathomeandcareforthechildrenwithoutworkingoutsidethehomeWhereasinfemininesocietieswomenwouldhavesimilarjobsasmendoWomenareexpectedtoworkandbothparentsareofferedleavetocarefornewbornchildren26TrompenaarsCulturalDimensions In1994TrompenaarsaDutchconsultantpublishedhisbookRidingtheWavesofCultureinwhichheofferedhisculturaldimensionsTheyincludeuniversalismvsparticularismindividualismvscollectivismneutralvsemotionalspecificvsdiffuseachievementvsascriptionUniversalismversusParticularismTheuniversalistapproachisroughlyWhatisgoodandrightcanbedefinedandalwaysappliesInparticularistculturesfargreaterattentionisgiventotheobligationofrelationshipsanduniquecircumstancesForexampleinsteadofassumingthattheonegoodwaymustalways befollowedtheparticularistreasoningisthatfriendshiphasspecialobligationsandhencemaycomefirstLessattentionisgiventoabstractsocietalcodesIndividualismversusCommunitarianismIndividualismandcommunitarianismarekeydimensionsinHofstedesearlierresearchAlthoughTrompenaarsderivedthesetworelationshipsdifferentlyfromHofstedetheystillhavethesamebasicmeaningalthoughinhismostrecentworkTrompenaarshasusedtheworkcommunitarianismratherthancollectivismForhimindividualismreferstopeopleregardingthemselvesasindividualswhilecommunitarianismreferstopeopleregarding themselvesaspartofagroupNeutralversusEmotionalShouldthenatureofourinteractionsbeobjectiveanddetachedorisexpressingemotionacceptableInNorthAmericaandNorthwestEuropebusinessrelationshipsaretypicallyinstrumentalandallaboutachievingobjectivesThebrainchecksemotionsbecausethesearebelievedtoconfusetheissuesTheassumptionisthatweshouldresembleourmachinesinordertooperatethemmoreefficientlyButfurthersouthandinmanyotherculturesbusinessisahumanaffairandthewholegamutofemotionsisdeemedappropriateLoudlaughterbanging yourfistonthetableorleavingaconferenceroominangerduringanegotiationisallpartofbusinessSpecificversusDiffuse１２ThespecificcultureisoneinwhichindividualshavealargepublicspacetheyreadilyletothersenterandshareandasmallprivatespacetheyguardcloselyandsharewithonlyclosefriendsandassociatesThediffusecultureisoneinwhichbothpublicandprivatespacearesimilarinsizeandindividualsguardtheirpublicspacecarefullybecauseentryintopublicspace