刘鎏实用英语语法 31页

66’sEnglishGrammarinuse实用英语语法刘鎏课程主线及目的简单语法输入:从此眼中无难句只有啰嗦的句子，没有复杂的句子复杂语法输出：规则正道在母语正确的中文思维=流畅的英文句子简单语法——词法——单词的功能，如何构成句子一、关系词汇1.“因果、条件”关系词（asaresult,resultin,resultfrom,leadto,becauseof,dueto,contributeto,owningto,hence,since,accordingly,consequently,therefore,inthat,etc.）2.“转折、对立”关系词（despite,inspiteof,but,although,though,while,yet,otherwise,ontheotherhand,however,nevertheless,nonetheless,etc.）3.“比较、递进”关系词（equally,likewise,similarly,incomparison,asfaras,aslongas,etc.）4.“并列、选择”关系词（first,second…finally,and,or,aswellas,one…theother,not…nor…,etc.）二、动词Bythe1970s,anewrespectfortheplaceofbuildingswithintheexistingtownscapearose.Peoplewholivedinthecitiesandwerenotdirectlyinvolvedintradeoftenparticipatedinsmallcottageindustriesmakinghandcraftedgoods.1 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse非谓语动词从此眼中无难句Wearingmasksandcostumes,theyoftenimpersonatedotherpeople,animals,orsupernaturalbeings,andmimedthedesiredeffect–successinhuntorbattle,thecomingrain,therevivaloftheSun–asanactormight.从此眼中无难句Thepeoplehadnoagriculturebut,overthousandsofyears,haddevelopedtechniquesandequipmenttoexploittheirenvironment,basingtheireconomyonfishinginstreamsandcoastalwatersthatteemedwithsalmon,halibut,andothervarietiesoffish;gatheringabalone,mussels,clams,andothershellfishfromtherockycoastline;huntinglandandseamammals;andcollectingwildplantfoods.及物动词不及物动词三、介词介词的功能1go___school;come___theroom;Sit___thedesk；point___thebook;___lastyear;___Monday；___6:00;aim___;laugh___;throw___;look___up/downon/out/into/for/forwardto/after/back/over/through介词的功能2AnimportantcontroversycenteringonthequestionofhumaneffectsonprehistoricwildlifeconcernsthesuddendisappearanceofsomanyspeciesoflargeanimalsatorneartheendofthePleistoceneepochAinBofConDbyEoverFwithG…2 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse从此眼中无难句Butthesefactorsdonotaccountfortheinterestingquestionofhowtherecametobesuchaconcentrationofpregnantichthyosaursinaparticularplaceveryclosetotheirtimeofgivingbirth.WhatwetodaycallAmericafolkartwas,indeed,artof,by,andforordinary,everyday"folks"who,withincreasingprosperityandleisure,createdamarketforartofallkinds,andespeciallyforportraits.介词的功能3Iamoveryou./Getoverit!/Heisjustnotthatintoyou./I’min!Sheisoutofmylife.Wearewithyou.Heisunder/belowme.Iamonit!Heisoff/notin.Youareallbyyourself.四、定性的形容词和副词五、名词抽象名词具体名词障碍1中英文修饰成分的习惯性位置我是北京XX英语培训教英语语法的老师Iamateacher……3 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse严重后果：倒装句非强调目的完全倒装典型实例:therebe句型非典型实例:Missinguntilrecentlywerefossilsclearlyintermediate,ortransitional,betweenlandmammalsandcetaceans.Somewhatmorepromisinghavebeenrecentexperimentsforreleasingcapillarywater(waterinthesoil)abovethewatertablebyinjectingcompressedairintotheground.其他用于强调的倒装（复杂语法）-IamfromChina.-SoamI.-Hisbrotherisnotagood-temperedboy.-norismine.Ontheserestedtheendsofapolefromwhichpotsweresuspendedwhencooking.Besidethefireplaceandbuiltaspartofitwastheoven.障碍2从此眼中无难句WhatwetodaycallAmericafolkartwas,indeed,artof,by,andforordinary,everyday"folks"who,withincreasingprosperityandleisure,createdamarketforartofallkinds,andespeciallyforportraits.从此眼中无难句ThetightarrangementenabledtheMandanstoprotectthemselvesmoreeasilyfromtheattacksofotherswhomightseektoobtainsomeofthefoodthesehighlycapablefarmersstoredfromoneyeartonext.从此眼中无难句Whateverthefinalanswertothewatercrisismaybe,itisevidentthatwithinthe4 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseHighPlains,irrigationwaterwillneveragainbetheabundant,inexpensiveresourceitwasduringtheagriculturalboomyearsofthemid-twentiethcentury.从此眼中无难句Theargumentthathumans,eveninprehistoric,hadsomenumbersense,atleasttotheextentofrecognizingtheconceptofmoreandlesswhensomeobjectswereaddedtoortakenawayfromasmallgroup,seemsfair,forstudieshaveshownthatsomeanimalpossesssuchasense.障碍3英文中特殊的惯用搭配从此眼中无难句Accustomedthoughwearetospeakingofthefilmsmadebefore1927as“silent”,thefilmhasneverbeen,inthefullsenseoftheword,silent.从此眼中无难句Foranumberofyearstheselectionofmusicforeachfilmprogramrestedentirelyinthehandsoftheconductororleaderoftheorchestra,andveryoftentheprincipalqualificationsforholdingsuchapositionwasnotskillortastesomuchastheownershipofalargepersonallibraryofmusicalpieces.从此眼中无难句SinceCanadianmetropolitanareashaveonlyone-quarterthenumberofkilometersofsuperhighwayspercapitaasUnitedStatesmetropolitanareas–andatleastasmuchresistancetoconstructingmore–suburbanizationofpeoplesandfunctionsislessextensivenorthoftheborderthansouth.从此眼中无难句Insteadoftryingtokeepdownthebodytemperaturedeepinsidethebody,whichwouldinvolvedtheexpenditureofwaterandenergy,desertmammalsallowtheirtemperaturestorisetowhatwouldnormallybefeverheight,andtemperaturesashighas46degreesCelsiushavebeenmeasuredinGrant’sgazelles.5 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse积累加练习的目的？输出语法句子的形成step1写出最基本的想法↓简单句↓简单动作关系：主谓宾对事物的表述：主系表step2加入时间和状态、情感和态度↓时态和情态一.句子的时态为什么说话要时态？时+态6 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse要点关于时间参考点——关于动作状态——二.句子的情态情感态度will,wouldcan,couldmay,mightneed,should,must,oughtto,haveto1、will,wouldwill：表示意愿willyoumarryme？Iwon’tleaveyou.would：表示委婉的意愿wouldyouhelpme？would也可以表示1）不确定、揣测Tomorrowwouldbeaniceday.2）不现实、虚拟IwouldthatIhadstayed.2、can,couldcan：表示能力canyoumakeit？Shecannotfinishherbook.cannot也可表示不可能的Theanswercannotbetrue.Hecannothaveseenmeyesterday.7 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse比较：Hecouldnotseemeyesterday.could：表示不确定的可能Myfathercouldbehomethisafternoon.Wherecouldasadkidgo?以上could换成can语气更坚定could：在条件假设句中，表示本来有可能但未实现的事Ifweknewouradversarywell,wecouldhavewonthatgame.3、may,mightmay：表示许可Youmayleaveafterthetest.反义词是maynot或mustnotmay：跟be或者条件句搭配表示可能、或许might：同may感情一致，态度偏谦虚委婉4、need,should,oughtto,must,haveto…非情态的委婉虚拟语气条件还是假设？真实还是非真实？IfoldLuocomeshere,Iwillaskhimsomequestions.IfoldLuocamehere,Iwouldaskhimsomequestions.5、虚拟语气能实现的条件通常不用虚拟不能实现或与事实不符的：假设8 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse1、与现在事实不符IfIhadtime,IwouldhelpyouIfIknewEnglish,Ishouldbeabletoreadthis.2、与过去事实不符Iftheweatherhadbeenniceyesterday,wewouldhavegonethen.3、与将来事实不符Ifourcompanywouldsettleabranchabroad,wewouldstartadifferentcareerthere.假设条件句的虚拟语气总结现在：IfIknewEnglish,Ishouldbeabletoreadthis.过去：Iftheweatherhadbeenniceyesterday,wewouldhavegonethen.将来：Ifourcompanywouldsettleabranchabroad,wewouldstartadifferentcareerthere.虚拟条件的其他表达1、倒装：DidIseeyourmother,Iwouldtellhereverything.Werewecallingyourname,willyoubethere?2、介词短语withoutbutfor：Withoutcomputer,therewouldbenohi-techindustryatall.Butforthenewrevolution,thecountrywouldn’tdevelopthisfast.3、WereitnoforButthat：Wereitnoforarailroad,wecouldnottouchtheworldoutside.Butthathesawit,hewouldnotbelieveitatall.虚拟语气的注意事项1、现代英语中should可以替换为would，因为……2、could、might可以替代should、would，只是情态不同3、当假设从句的主语是第一、第三人称时，可以使用was，但是在省略if、前置was作倒装是，无论第几人称，都必须使用were.4、hopewish表示希望时，用虚拟语气表示希望落空.Ihopethatyouwillwouldcome.5、thinkintendmeanwantplan结合过去完成时态，表示本打算做但是未做的事。Ihadintendedtohaveadinnerwithyou.9 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse三、倒装句表强调1.only+状语或状语从句置于句首，句子用部分倒装。Onlyinthiswaycanyousolvethisproblem.Onlyafterhehadspokenouttheworddidherealizehehadmadeabigmistake.2.nor,hardly,innoway,little,scarcely,seldom,never,nomore,nolonger,not,notonly,nosooner,notonly…(butalso),notuntil…等具有否定意义的词或词组位于句首，句子用部分倒装。NosoonerhadIgothomethanitbegantorain.SeldomdoIgotoworkbybus.Notuntiltwelveo"clockdidshegotobedlastnight.NordidtheWhigsenvisionanyconflictinsocietybetweenfarmersandworkersontheonehandandbusinesspeopleandbankersontheother.3.so/such...that结构中的so或such位于句首可以构成倒装,表示强调so/such和that之间的部分。Sounreasonablewashispricethateverybodystartled.Tosuchlengthdidshegoinrehearsalthateventhedirectorgottired.4.某些副词开头的句子构成的完全倒装here、there、now、then、thus。前提是谓语动词是不及物动词，如arise、be、come、exist、go、follow等。需要注意的是，当主语是代词时，不能构成倒装。Herecomesourheadmaster。Hereisyourkey.5.感叹句强调名词时使用what感叹强调形容词或副词时使用how感叹Todayisaniceday。变换步骤1:变换步骤2:变换步骤3:困惑：完全倒装VS局部倒装Soisit.Soitis.Hereyouare.10 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse四、对主干进行修饰（一）定语：1、词间的修饰a、简单定语的修饰顺序AllthethreegoodbigsquarenewbrownChinesewoodenwritinghomedesksb、名词间加介词修饰AinBofConDbyEoverFwithG…c、名词直接修饰roomservice,machinegun,partymemberd、带动作关系的名词修饰music-lovingpeopleman-madeplanet区别？everlastingloveheartbrokenman2、用句子修饰名词：定语从句定语从句纠结点1——限定or非限定?（a）Thetravelerswhoknewaboutthefloodstookanotherroad．（b）Thetravelers，whoknewaboutthefloods，tookanotherroad．——逗号的功能限定性定语从句：非限定性定语从句：Thedeserts,whichalreadyoccupyapproximatelyafourthoftheEarth"slandsurface,haveinrecentdecadesbeenincreasingatanalarmingpace.Theappliedartsalsopertaintothelawsofphysics,whichcanboundtheirshapes,sizeandfunctions.11 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse由于非限定性定语从句常用于进行补充说明，所有它也可以针对整个主句，而不是仅仅修饰名词。IhadaskedhertoshowmethenewiPhone,whichshedid.Whendeeplyabsorbedinwork,whichheoftenwas,hewouldforgetallotherthings.定语从句纠结点2——同位语从句or定语从句?Thiswasaproductivityboostthathasconfirmedtheexpertpredictionthattheimprovementofenergysourceswouldreformourmanufacturing.定语从句纠结点3——定语从句引导词前面的介词?Thedoorof/towhichyoulostthekeycannotbeopened.Unlikeartisanworkshopsinwhichapprenticesworkedcloselywiththemasterssupervisingthem,factoriessharplyseparatedworkersfrommanagement.定语从句前的介词通常可以放置从句句尾，此时which可以省略Thisisthelabyoucantakealasertestin.定语从句纠结点4——什么情况下可省略引导词?ThemanwhoteachesusEnglishhasneverbeentoEnglandbefore.Thebookwhichmyfatherboughttaughtmealotofthings.Doyouthinktheboyisdoingsomethingthatheshouldn’tdo?Thesoftwarethat/whichwedevelopedcanbeusedtocontroltheprocess.在____________________________的情况下可省略引导词定语从句纠结点5——thatorwhich?12 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse（二）状语时间、地点、原因、结果、方式、频率…1、副词作状语2、介词词组作状语3、非谓语形式作状语4、状语从句状语纠结点1——插入语or状语?（1）Frankly，hedoesn’tlikemusicatall.Hereyoushouldspeakfrankly.（2）True，yourdaughterisathomenow.Hecameback，hungryandtired.（3）Judgingfromwhathesaid，hedoeslookdownhiselderbrother.Seeingfromthewindow，hecanseethelake.（4）Totellyouthetruth，hedoesn"tquiteagreewiththisidea.Tobuythemachine，hewenttoBeijing.状语纠结点2——非谓语动词作状语or独立主格?Weatherpermitting,wewillhaveapicnictomorrow.Keepingsilent,Iwalkedthroughthecrowd.Silently,Iwatchedherweatheredface,tearsinmyeyes.两者的区别：动词的非谓语形式作状语：独立主格作状语：Themenmovedslowlyforward,neckdeepinthewater,withtheirofficersguidingthem.13 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseHerearethefirsttwovolumes,thethirdonetocomeoutnextmonth.独立主格的来由？Themeetingover,allofuswenthome.Herworkdone,shesatdownforacupoftea.Theconditionfavorable,hemaysucceed.Weredoubledourefforts,eachmanworkingliketwo.Wintercoming,itgetscolderandcolder.Nobodyin,thethieftookalotofthingsaway.表伴随状况或补充说明时，相当于一个并列句，通常放于句末。Thehuntsmanenteredtheforest,guninhandHesatatthetable,coatoff,headdown,andpeninhand.hefoughtthewolf,astickhisonlyweapon语法考试中的例题：Themurderwasbroughtin,withhishands___behindhisback.A.beingtiedB.havingtiedC.tobetiedD.tiedHewrotealotofnovels,manyof______translatedintoforeignlanguages.A.itB.themC.whichD.thatHewrotealotofnovels,manyof______weretranslatedintoforeignlanguages.A.itB.themC.whichD.that（三）补语对名词成分进行补充宾语补足语主语补足语宾语补足语的形式：1.不定式(todo)Fatherwillnotallowustoplayonthestreet.Webelievehimtobeguilty.Heismadetocopythesentence.2.名词Atthemeetingweelectedhimmonitor.Ithinkyourbrotheracleverboy.14 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse3.形容词Whatyousaidmadeyourmotherangry.Ifoundtheclassroomempty.Ifeltmyhandstremble.4.现在分词Wehearhimsinginginthehall.Ifoundhimlyinginbed,sleeping.5.过去分词Hesawhisfacereflectedinthewater.Ihearditspokenofinthenextroom.主语补足语的形式：以上句型的被动式Isawhimplayingbasketballyesterday.Hewasseenplayingbasketballyesterday.五、语法散点（课后补充部分）一、冠词aanthe零冠词二、数1.Justas(A)someteenagersadorevideogames,soothers(B)condemnit(C)asanutter(D)wastetime.Noerror(E)[答案]：C.[改正]:condemn的宾语应该指的videogames所以应该改为them.15 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse2.Thequalityofmultivitamintabletsisdetermined(A)byhowlong(B)its(C)potencycanbeprotected(D)bythemanufacturer’scoatingmaterial.Noerror(E)[答案]：C[改正]:将其改为their,是前面的tablets的所有格形式。3.Tobecome（A）aworldfigure‐skatingchampionlikeKristiYamaguchi,onemustbe(B)sodedicatedthatyou（C）willpractice(D)sixhoursaday.Noerror.(E)[答案]：C[改正]:前面有个很明显的词one,所以不能用you来指代而是用第三人称he/she.特别注意1one/ones不可随意指代，one或者ones在指代的时候只适用于第三人称即one与第三人称he/she对应；在复数的情况下ones和they进行对应4.Wedon’thaveso‐calledfreedom,becauseattimeswhatonesdodependsonotherpeople.5.Whenoneisexhausted,he/sheistiredofansweringothers’questions.6.Fewissuesis(A)aslikely(B)toprovokewidespreadinterestasthose(C)involvingpossibledangerto(D)thehealthorsafetyofchildren.Noerror(E)此题的正确答案为A选项，应该将其改为are。只要能够判断出句子开头的主语是issues这个复数名词就很简单了。7.Thebright(A)fiberglasssculpturesofLuisJimenezhasreceived(B)criticalacclaimnotonly(C)inhishomestate,NewMexico,butalsoin(D)NewYork.Noerror(E).分析：此题的正确答案是B选项，将其改为have。句子中主语是sculptures，是一个复数主语，所以谓语部分应该用复数形式。8.Theprofessor’sinsistenceonhighstandardsandrigorousexamsare(A)not,despitewhatstudentsthink,partof(B)aplantowithhold(C)highgradesfromthem(D).Noerror(E).分析：答案为A,主语为insistence，所以谓语应该改为is。16 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse9.Alsosupported(A)bythecommissionwas(B)theproposedhealthclinicsandtheproposedcenter(C)todistributeinformationonjob-training(D)opportunities.Noerror(E)分析：此题的正确答案为B选项，将was改成were。这道题目难度较大，是典型的倒装与主谓一致的搭配，正常语序应为:theproposedhealthclinicsandtheproposedcenterwerealsosupportedbythecommission…，是一个有and连接的复数主语。10.Inthefoothillsofthatlargemountainrangeis(A)thesourcesofariverwhosecourse(B)wasnotfullymapped(C)until(D)thiscentury.Noerror(E).分析：此题的正确答案为A选项,这道题也是倒装句，thesourcesofariver是主语，所以谓语应该为are而不是is。11.Airpollutioncausedbyindustrialfumeshasbeenstudied(A)foryears,but(B)onlyrecentlyhas(C)theharmfuleffectsofnoisepollutionbecome(D)known.Noerror(E).分析：此题的正确答案为C选项，有个很明显的倒装标志词only，后半句的主语是theharmfuleffectsofnoisepollution所以应该把has改为have.特别注意2谓语动词单复数的固定用法（1）anumberof+名词表示一些；其后谓语动词用复数,thenumberof+名词表示什么东西的数量；这个短语的主语中心词是“thenumber”，其后的动词应该用单数；于此类似的有还有avarietyof和thevarietyof（2）量词：acollectionsetlinelistgroupof+名词谓语的单复数与量词保持一致Thenumberofawardsgiventhisyear(A)tobiochemistsaccentuate(B)thesignificantgains(C)beingmadein(D)thestudyofthechemistryoflivingorganisms.Noerror(E)(OGP66026)此题的正确答G案是B选项，应改为：accentuates。主句主语为thenumberof，所以谓语动词用单数。(3)eachof+Ns+谓语单数Ns+each+谓语复数例如：Theyeachputforwardaproposal.如果each做主语，谓语动词一般应当用作单数，如：Eachofthemthinksdifferentthoughts。（4）以s为结尾表示单数的单词17 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse三、句子内的平行（1）名词，名词，and名词；todo,todoandtodo;(如果平行的成分只有2个则第二个成分的to可以省略，但是如果是三个平行，那么第二个和第三个的形式要保持一致，要么都是do,要么都是todo.)doing,doinganddoing;done,doneanddone平行结构（2）两者之间的平行如：notonly…,butalso…;neither…,nor…;either…,or…；As…..as…..;justas……so;both…and….（必须用and用aswellas是错误的）例如：Learning(A)aforeignlanguagesisdifficultnotonlybecauselanguagescontain(B)anenormousnumberofwordsandbecause(C)peopleneedtousealanguagetobecome(D)comfortablewithit.Noerror(E).此题的正确答案为C选项，前面有很明显的notonly，所以后面不能有and来并列应用butalso.特别注意3为了让平行结构清晰易懂，不产生歧义，应该重复介词。例如：IhavevisitedmanylibrariesinUS,notinCanada.Inarecentyear,moretouristsfromtheUnitedStatesvisitedmuseumsinGreatBritainthan________.(A)Canada(B)Canadadid(C)comparedtoCanada(D)Canadianones(E)inCanada（3）主干结构平行如:todo….istodo…..例：1.Toinsistthatapoemmeanswhateverone(A)wantsit(B)tomeanisoftenignoring(C)theintentionandeven(D)thewordsofthepoets.Noerror(E)分析：答案为C，此题为Toinsist..istoignore…..的结构，所以不能用ignoring2.Tostandin(A)PersepolisinmodernIranandlookout,asDariustheFirstmusthavedone(B),attheimmensesweepoffieldsandmountains(C)istograsp(D)thevastnessoftheancientPersianEmpire.Noerror(E)分析：答案为E，此题是Tostand…istograsp….的结构所以正确。3.Drivingless(A)frequentlyisonewaytosaveenergy;toturnoffall(B)applianceswhentheyare(C)notbeingusedisanother(D).Noerror(E)分析：此题正确答案为B选项，将起改为“tuningoff”与分号前面句子开头的“Driving”进行对应。18 66’sEnglishGrammarinuse复杂句成分-句子分析练习1.Theintentofthislegislationwastoprovideprotectiontoselectedcoastalhabitatssimilartothatexistingforlandareasdesignatedasnationalparks.2.Onlyinthiswaycanareasonabledegreeofmarinespeciesdiversitybemaintainedinasettingthatalsomaintainsthenaturalinterrelationshipsthatexistamongthesespecies.3.Withonlyanapprenticeasanassistant,theruralartisanprovidedtheneighborhoodwithcommongoodsfromfurnituretoshoestofarmequipmentinexchangeforcashorfor“goodsinkind”fromthecustomer’sfield,pasture,ordairy.4.Whileitispleasanttoimagineawoodworker,forexample,carefullymatchinglumber,joiningachesttogetherwithoutresorttonailsorglue,andapplyingallthoughtandenergytocarvingbeautifuldesignsonthefinishedpiece,thetimerequiredwasnotjustifiedunlessthecustomerwaswillingtopayextraforthequality—andfewinruralareaswere.5.Thefirstapplicationofthismethodofanalysistostonetoolsthatare1.5millionto2millionyearsoldindicatesthat,fromthestart,animportantfunctionofearlystonetoolswastoextracthighlynutritiousfood—meatandmarrow-fromlargeanimalcarcasses.Fossilboneswithcutmarkscausedbystonetoolshavebeendiscoveredlyinginthesame2-million-year-oldlayersthatyieldedtheoldestsuchtoolsandtheoldesthominidspecimens(includinghumans)withlargerthanape-sizedbrains.Thisdiscoveryincreasesscientists"certaintyaboutwhenhumanancestorsbegantoeatmoremeatthanpresent-daynonhumanprimates.6.Hardy’sweaknessderivedfromhisapparentinabilitytocontrolthecomingsandgoingsofthesedivergentimpulsesandfromhisunwillingnesstocultivateandsustaintheenergeticandriskyones.7.AlthoughGutmanadmitsthatforcedseparationbysalewasfrequent，heshowsthattheslaves’preference，revealedmostclearlyonplantationswheresalewasinfrequent，wasverymuchforstablemonogamy.8.Thispreferenceforexogamy,Gutmansuggests,mayhavederivedfromWestAfricanrulesgoverningmarriage，which，thoughtheydifferedfromonetribalgrouptoanother，allinvolvedsomekindofprohibitionagainstunionswithclosekin.9.Otherexperimentsrevealedslightvariationsinthesize，number，arrangement，andinter19 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseconnectionofthenervecells，butasfaraspsychoneuralcorrelationswereconcerned，theobvioussimilaritiesofthesesensoryfieldstoeachotherseemedmuchmoreremarkablethananyoftheminutedifferences.10.Inlargepartasaconsequenceofthefeministmovement，historianshavefocusedagreatdealofattentioninrecentyearsondeterminingmoreaccuratelythestatusofwomeninvariousperiods.11.IfonebeginsbyexaminingwhyancientsrefertoAmazons,itbecomesclearthatancientGreekdescriptionsofsuchsocietiesweremeantnotsomuchtorepresentobservedhistoricalfact–realAmazoniansocieties–butrathertooffer“morallessons”onthesupposedoutcomeofwomen’sruleintheirownsociety.12.Althoughthesemoleculesallowradiationatvisiblewavelengths，wheremostoftheenergyofsunlightisconcentrated，topassthrough，theyabsorbsomeofthelonger-wavelength，infraredemissionsradiatedfromtheEarth’ssurface，radiationthatwouldotherwisebetransmittedbackintospace.13.ThiswaslesstrueinthecolonialSouth,wherelifecenteredaroundlargefarms,knownasplantations,ratherthanaroundtowns,aswasthecaseintheareasfurthernorthalongtheAtlanticcoastline.14.AcritiqueofHandlin’sinterpretationofwhylegalslaverydidnotappearuntilthe1660’ssuggeststhatassumptionsabouttherelationbetweenslaveryandracialprejudiceshouldbereexamined,andthatexplanationsforthedifferenttreatmentofBlackslavesinNorthandSouthAmericashouldbeexpanded.20 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseIndustrializationIntheearly1800’s,over80percentoftheUnitedStateslaborforcewasengagedinagriculture.Sophisticatedtechnologyandmachinerywerevirtuallynonexistent.Peoplewholivedinthecitiesandwerenotdirectlyinvolvedintradeoftenparticipatedinsmallcottageindustriesmakinghandcraftedgoods.Otherscuredmeats,orotherwiseproducedneededgoodsandcommodities.Blacksmiths,silversmiths,candlemakers,andotherartisansworkedintheirhomesorbarns,relyingonhelpoffamilymembersorapprentices.PerhapsnosinglephenomenonbroughtmorewidespreadandlastingchangetotheUnitedStatessocietythantheriseofindustrialization.Industrialgrowthhingedonseveraleconomicfactors.First,industryrequiresanabundanceofnaturalresources,especiallycoal,ironore,water,petroleum,andtimber-allreadilyavailableontheNorthAmericancontinent.Second,factoriesdemandalargelaborsupply.Betweenthe1870’sandtheFirstWorldWar(1914-1918),approximately23millionimmigrantsstreamedtotheUnitedStates,settledincities,andwenttoworkinfactoriesandmines.Theyalsohelpedbuildthevastnetworkofcanalsandrailroadsthatcrisscrossedthecontinentandlinkedimportanttradecentersessentialtoindustrialgrowth.Factoriesalsoofferedareprievefromthebackbreakingworkandfinancialunpredictabilityassociatedwithfarming.Manyadults,pooranddisillusionedwithfarmlife,wereluredtothecitiesbypromisesofsteadyemployment,regularpaychecks,increasedaccesstogoodsandservices,andexpandedsocialopportunities.Otherswerepushedtherewhennewtechnologiesmadetheirlaborcheaporexpendable;inventionssuchassteelplowsandmechanizedharvestersallowedonefarmhandtoperformworkthatpreviouslyhadrequiredseveral,thusmakingfarmingcapital-intensiveratherthanlabor-intensive.TheUnitedStateseconomyunderwentamassivetransitionandthenatureofworkwaspermanentlyaltered.Whereascottageindustriesreliedonafewhighlyskilledcraftworkerswhoslowlyandcarefullyconvertedrawmaterialsintofinishedproductsfromstarttofinish,factoriesreliedonspecialization.Whilefactoryworkwaslesscreativeandmoremonotonous,itwasalsomoreefficientandallowedmassproductionofgoodsatlessexpense.21 66’sEnglishGrammarinusePleistoceneExtinctionsManyprehistoricpeoplesubsistedashuntersandgatherers.Undoubtedly,gameanimals,includingsomeverylargespecies,providedmajorcomponentsofhumandiets.AnimportantcontroversycenteringonthequestionofhumaneffectsonprehistoricwildlifeconcernsthesuddendisappearanceofsomanyspeciesoflargeanimalsatorneartheendofthePleistoceneepoch.Mostpaleontologistssuspectthatabruptchangesinclimateledtothemassextinctions.Others,however,haveconcludedthatprehistoricpeopledrovemanyofthosespeciestoextinctionthroughoverhunting.Intheir"Pleistoceneoverkillhypothesis,"theycitewhatseemstobearemarkablecoincidencebetweenthearrivalofprehistoricpeoplesinNorthandSouthAmericaandthetimeduringwhichmammoths,giantgroundsloths,thegiantbison,andnumerousotherlargemammalsbecameextinct.Perhapsthehumanspecieswasdrivingotherstoextinctionlongbeforethedawnofhistory.Hunter-gatherersmayhavecontributedtoPleistoceneextinctionsinmoreindirectways.Besidesoverhunting,atleastthreeotherkindsofeffectshavebeensuggested:directcompetition,imbalancesbetweencompetingspeciesofgameanimals,andearlyagriculturalpractices.Directcompetitionmayhavebroughtaboutthedemiseoflargecarnivoressuchasthesaber-toothedcats.TheseanimalssimplymayhavebeenunabletocompetewiththeincreasinglysophisticatedhuntingskillsofPleistocenepeople.Humanhunterscouldhavecausedimbalancesamonggameanimals,leadingtotheextinctionsofspecieslessabletocompete.Whenotherpredatorssuchasthegraywolfpreyuponlargemammals,theygenerallytakehighproportionsofeachyearscropofyoung.Somehumanhunters,incontrast,tendtotakethevariousage-groupsoflargeanimalsinproportiontotheiractualoccurrence.Ifsuchhuntersfirstcompetedwiththelargerpredatorsandthenreplacedthem.theymayhaveallowedmoreyoungtosurviveeachyear,graduallyincreasingthepopulationsoffavoredspeciesAsthesepopulationsexpanded,theyinturnmayhavecompetedwithothergamespeciesforthesameenvironmentalniche,forcingthelesshuntedspeciesintoextinction.Thistheory,suggeststhathumanhuntersplayedanindirectroleinPleistoceneextinctionsbyhuntingonespeciesmorethananother.22 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseJupiterThelargestofthegiantgasplanets,Jupiter,withavolume1,300timesgreaterthanEarth’s,containsmorethantwicethemassofalltheotherplanetscombined.Itisthoughttobeagaseousandfluidplanetwithoutsolidsurfaces.Haditbeensomewhatmoremassive,Jupitermighthaveattainedinternaltemperaturesashighastheignitionpointfornuclearreactions,anditwouldhaveflamedasastarinitsownright.Jupiterandtheothergiantplanetsareofalow-densitytypequitedistinctfromtheterrestrialplanets:theyarecomposedpredominantlyofsuchsubstancesashydrogen,helium,ammonia,andmethane,unliketerrestrialplanets.MuchofJupiter’sinteriormightbeintheformofliquid,metallichydrogen,Normally,hydrogenisagas,butunderpressuresofmillionsofkilogramspersquarecentimeter,whichexistinthedeepinteriorofJupiter,thehydrogenatomsmightlocktogethertoformaliquidwiththepropertiesofametal.SomescientistsbelievethattheinnermostcoreofJupitermightberocky,ormetalliclikethecoreofEarth.Jupiterrotatesveryfast,onceevery9.8hours.Asaresult,itsclouds,whicharecomposedlargelyoffrozenandliquidammonia,havebeenwhippedintoalternatingdarkandbrightbandsthatcircletheplanetatdifferentspeedsindifferentlatitudes.Jupiter’spuzzlingGreatRedSpotchangessizeasithoversintheSouthernHemisphere.Scientistsspeculateitmightbeagigantichurricane,whichbecauseofitslargesize(theEarthcouldeasilyfitinsideit),lastsforhundredsofyears.JupitergivesofftwiceasmuchheatasitreceivesfromtheSun.Perhapsthisisprimevalheatorheatgeneratedbythecontinuedgravitationalcontractionoftheplanet.AnotherstarlikecharacteristicofJupiterisitssixteennaturalsatellites,which,likeaminiaturemodeloftheSolarSystem,decreaseindensitywithdistance—fromrockymoonsclosetoJupitertoicymoonsfartheraway.IfJupiterwereabout70timesmoremassive,itwouldhavebecomeastar,Jupiteristhebest-preservedsampleoftheearlysolarnebula,andwithitssatellites,mightcontainthemostimportantcluesabouttheoriginoftheSolarSystem.23 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseMeteoriteImpactandDinosaurExtinctionThereisincreasingevidencethattheimpactsofmeteoriteshavehadimportanteffectsonEarth,particularlyinthefieldofbiologicalevolution.SuchimpactscontinuetobringanaturalhazardtolifeonEarth.Twiceinthetwentiethcentury,largemeteoriteobjectsareknowntohitEarth.Ifanimpactislargeenough,itcandestroytheenvironmentoftheentireEarthandcauseanecologicaldisaster.Thebest-documentedsuchimpacttookplace65millionyearsagoattheendoftheCretaceousperiodofgeologicalhistory.ThisbreakinEarth"shistoryismarkedbyamassextinction,whenasmanyashalfthespeciesontheplanetbecameextinct.Whilethereareadozenormoremassextinctionsinthegeologicalrecord,theCretaceousmassextinctionhasalwaysattractedpaleontologistsbecauseitmarkstheendoftheageofthedinosaurs.Fortensofmillionsofyears,thosegreatcreatureshadflourished.Then,suddenly,theydisappeared.ThebodythatimpactedEarthattheendoftheCretaceousperiodwasameteoritewithamassofmorethanatrilliontonsandadiameterofatleast10kilometers.Scientistsfirstidentifiedthisimpactin1980fromtheworldwidelayerofsedimentdepositedfromthedustcloudthatenvelopedtheplanetaftertheimpact.ThissedimentlayerisenrichedintheraremetaliridiumandotherelementsthatarerelativelyabundantinameteoritebutveryrareinthecrustofEarth.Evendilutedbytheterrestrialmaterialexcavatedfromthecrater,thiscomponentofmeteoritesiseasilyidentified.By1990geologistshadlocatedtheimpactsiteitselfintheYucatregionofMexico.Thecrater,nowdeeplyburiedinsediment,wasoriginallyabout200kilometersindiameter.Thisimpactreleasedanenormousamountofenergy,excavatingacraterabouttwiceaslargeasthelunarcraterTycho.Theexplosionliftedabout100trilliontonsofdustintotheatmosphere,ascanbedeterminedbymeasuringthethicknessofthesedimentlayerformedwhenthisdustsettledtothesurface.Suchaquantityofmaterialwouldhaveblockedthe24 66’sEnglishGrammarinusesunlightcompletelyfromreachingthesurface,plungingEarthintoaperiodofcoldanddarknessthatlastedatleastseveralmonths.TheexplosionisalsocalculatedtohaveproducedvastquantitiesofnitricacidandmeltedrockthatsprayedoutovermuchofEarth,startingwidespreadfiresthatmusthaveconsumedmostterrestrialforestsandgrassland.Presumably,thoseenvironmentaldisasterscouldhavebeenresponsibleforthemassextinction,includingthedeathofthedinosaurs.Severalothermassextinctionsinthegeologicalrecordhavebeenidentifiedwithlargeimpacts,butnoneissodramaticastheCretaceousevent.Butevenwithoutsuchspecificdocumentation,itisclearthatimpactsofthissizedooccurandthattheirresultscanbedestructive.Whatisadisasterforonegroupoflivingthings,however,maycreateopportunitiesforanothergroup.Followingeachmassextinction,thereisasuddenevolutionaryburstasnewspeciesdeveloptofilltheecologicalspaceopenedbytheevent.Impactsbymeteoritesrepresentonemechanismthatcouldcauseglobaldisastersandseriouslyinfluencetheevolutionoflifeallovertheplanet.Accordingtosomeestimates,themajorityofallextinctionsofspeciesmaybeduetosuchimpacts.Suchaperspectivefundamentallychangesourviewofbiologicalevolution.Thestandardcriterionforthesurvivalofaspeciesisitssuccessincompetingwithotherspeciesandadaptingtoslowlychangingenvironments.Yetanequallyimportantcriterionistheabilityofaspeciestosurviverandomglobalecologicaldisastersduetoimpacts.Earthisatargetinacosmicshootinggallery,subjecttorandomviolenteventsthatwereunsuspectedafewdecadesago.In1991theUnitedStatesCongressaskedNASAtoresearchthehazardbroughttodaybylargeimpactsonEarth.Thegroupconductingthestudyconcludedfromadetailedanalysisthatimpactsfrommeteoritescanindeedbehazardous.Althoughthereisalwayssomeriskthatalargeimpactcouldoccur,carefulstudyshowsthatthisriskisquitesmall.25 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseTHEDECLARATIONOFINDEPENDENCE独立宣言WhenintheCourseofhumanevents,itbecomesnecessaryforonepeopletodissolvethepoliticalbandswhichhaveconnectedthemwithanother,andtoassumeamongthePowersoftheearth,theseparateandequalstationtowhichtheLawsofNatureandofNature"sGodentitlethem,adecentrespecttotheopinionsofmankindrequiresthattheyshoulddeclarethecauseswhichimpelthemtotheseparation.在有关人类事务的发展过程中，当一个民族必须解除其和另一个民族之间的政治联系，并在世界各国之间依照自然法则和上帝的意旨，接受独立和平等的地位时，出于人类舆论的尊重，必须把他们不得不独立的原因予以宣布。Weholdthesetruthstobeself-evident,thatallmenarecreatedequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienableRights,thatamongtheseareLife,Liberty,andthepursuitofHappiness.我们认为下面这些真理是不言而喻的：人人生而平等，造物者赋予他们若干不可剥夺的权利，其中包括生命权、自由权和追求幸福的权利。Thattosecuretheserights,GovernmentsareinstitutedamongMen,derivingtheirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned.为了保障这些权利，人类才在他们之间建立政府，而政府之正当权力，是经被治理者的同意而产生的。ThatwheneveranyformofGovernmentbecomesdestructiveoftheseends,itistheRightofthePeopletoalterortoabolishit,andtoinstitutenewGovernment,layingitsfoundationonsuchprinciplesandorganizingitspowersinsuchform,astothemshallseemmostlikelytoeffecttheirSafetyandHappiness.Prudence,indeed,willdictatethatGovernmentslongestablishedshouldnotbechangedforlightandtransientcauses;andaccordinglyallexperiencehathshown,thatmankindaremoredisposedtosuffer,whileevilsaresufferable,thantorightthemselvesbyabolishingtheformstowhichtheyareaccustomed.Butwhenalongtrainofabusesandusurpations,pursuinginvariablythesameObject,evincesadesigntoreducethemunderabsoluteDespotism,itistheirright,itistheirduty,tothrowoffsuch26 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseGovernment,andtoprovidenewGuardsfortheirfuturesecurity.当任何形式的政府对这些目标具破坏作用时，人民便有权力改变或废除它，以建立一个新的政府；其赖以奠基的原则，其组织权力的方式，务使人民认为唯有这样才最可能获得他们的安全和幸福。为了慎重起见，成立多年的政府，是不应当由于轻微和短暂的原因而予以变更的。过去的一切经验也都说明，任何苦难，只要是尚能忍受，人类都宁愿容忍，而无意为了本身的权益便废除他们久已习惯了的政府。但是，当追逐同一目标的一连串滥用职权和强取豪夺发生，证明政府企图把人民置于专制统治之下时，那么人民就有权利，也有义务推翻这个政府，并为他们未来的安全建立新的保障－－SuchhasbeenthepatientsufferanceoftheseColonies;andsuchisnowthenecessitywhichconstrainsthemtoaltertheirformerSystemsofGovernment.ThehistoryofthepresentKingofGreatBritainisahistoryofrepeatedinjuriesandusurpations,allhavingindirectobjecttheestablishmentofanabsoluteTyrannyovertheseStates.Toprovethis,letFactsbesubmittedtoacandidworld.这就是这些殖民地过去逆来顺受的情况，也是它们现在不得不改变以前政府制度的原因。当今大不列颠国王的历史，是接连不断的伤天害理和强取豪夺的历史，这些暴行的唯一目标，就是想在这些州建立专制的暴政。为了证明所言属实，现把下列事实向公正的世界宣布－－HehasrefusedhisAssenttoLaws,themostwholesomeandnecessaryforthepublicgood.他拒绝批准对公众利益最有益、最必要的法律。HehasforbiddenhisGovernorstopassLawsofimmediateandpressingimportance,unlesssuspendedintheiroperationtillhisAssentshouldbeobtained;andwhensosuspended,hehasutterlyneglectedtoattendtothem.他禁止他的总督们批准迫切而极为必要的法律，要不就把这些法律搁置起来暂不生效，等待他的同意；而一旦这些法律被搁置起来，他对它们就完全置之不理。HehasrefusedtopassotherLawsfortheaccommodationoflargedistrictsofpeople,unlessthosepeoplewouldrelinquishtherightofRepresentationintheLegislature,arightinestimabletothemandformidabletotyrantsonly.他拒绝批准便利广大地区人民的其它法律，除非那些人民情愿放弃自己在立法机关中的代表权；但这种权利对他们有无法估量的价值，而且只有暴君才畏惧这种权利。Hehascalledtogetherlegislativebodiesatplacesunusual,uncomfortable,anddistant27 66’sEnglishGrammarinusefromthedepositoryoftheirpublicRecords,forthesolepurposeoffatiguingthemintocompliancewithhismeasures.他把各州立法团体召集到异乎寻常的、极为不便的、远离它们档案库的地方去开会，唯一的目的是使他们疲于奔命，不得不顺从他的意旨。HehasdissolvedRepresentativeHousesrepeatedly,foropposingwithmanlyfirmnesshisinvasionsontherightsofthepeople.他一再解散各州的议会，因为它们以无畏的坚毅态度反对他侵犯人民的权利。Hehasrefusedforalongtime,aftersuchdissolutions,tocauseotherstobeelected;wherebytheLegislativepowers,incapableofAnnihilation,havereturnedtothePeopleatlargefortheirexercise;theStateremaininginthemeantimeexposedtoallthedangersofinvasionfromwithout,andconvulsionswithin.他在解散各州议会之后，又长期拒绝另选新议会；但立法权是无法取消的，因此这项权力仍由一般人民来行使。其实各州仍然处于危险的境地，既有外来侵略之患，又有发生内乱之忧。HehasendeavouredtopreventthepopulationoftheseStates;forthatpurposeobstructingtheLawsofNaturalizationofForeigners;refusingtopassotherstoencouragetheirmigrationshither,andraisingtheconditionsofnewAppropriationsofLands.他竭力抑制我们各州增加人口；为此目的，他阻挠外国人入籍法的通过，拒绝批准其它鼓励外国人移居各州的法律，并提高分配新土地的条件。HehasobstructedtheAdministrationofJustice,byrefusinghisAssenttoLawsforestablishingJudiciarypowers.他拒绝批准建立司法权力的法律，藉以阻挠司法工作的推行。HehasmadeJudgesdependentonhisWillalone,forthetenureoftheiroffices,andtheamountandpaymentoftheirsalaries.他把法官的任期、薪金数额和支付，完全置于他个人意志的支配之下。HehaserectedamultitudeofNewOffices,andsenthitherswarmsofOfficerstoharassourPeople,andeatouttheirsubstance.他建立新官署，派遣大批官员，骚扰我们人民，并耗尽人民必要的生活物质。Hehaskeptamongus,intimesofpeace,StandingArmieswithouttheConsentofourlegislatures.他在和平时期，未经我们的立法机关同意，就在我们中间维持常备军。28 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseHehasaffectedtorendertheMilitaryindependentofandsuperiortotheCivilpower.他力图使军队独立于民政之外，并凌驾于民政之上。Hehascombinedwithotherstosubjectustoajurisdictionforeigntoourconstitution,andunacknowledgedbyourlaws;givinghisAssenttotheirActsofpretendedLegislation:他同某些人勾结起来把我们置于一种不适合我们的体制且不为我们的法律所承认的管辖之下；他还批准那些人炮制的各种伪法案来达到以下目的：Forquarteringlargebodiesofarmedtroopsamongus:在我们中间驻扎大批武装部队；Forprotectingthem,byamockTrial,fromPunishmentforanyMurderswhichtheyshouldcommitontheInhabitantsoftheseStates:用假审讯来包庇他们，使他们杀害我们各州居民而仍然逍遥法外；ForcuttingoffourTradewithallpartsoftheworld:切断我们同世界各地的贸易；ForimposingTaxesonuswithoutourConsent:未经我们同意便向我们强行征税；Fordeprivingusinmanycases,ofthebenefitsofTrialbyJury:在许多案件中剥夺我们享有陪审制的权益；FortransportingusbeyondSeastobetriedforpretendedoffences:罗织罪名押送我们到海外去受审；ForabolishingthefreeSystemofEnglishLawsinaneighbouringProvince,establishingthereinanArbitrarygovernment,andenlargingitsBoundariessoastorenderitatonceanexampleandfitinstrumentforintroducingthesameabsoluteruleintotheseColonies:在一个邻省废除英国的自由法制，在那裹建立专制政府，并扩大该省的疆界，企图把该省变成既是一个样板又是一个得心应手的工具，以便进而向这里的各殖民地推行同样的极权统治；FortakingawayourCharters,abolishingourmostvaluableLaws,andalteringfundamentallytheformsofourGovernments:取消我们的宪章，废除我们最宝贵的法律，并且根本上改变我们各州政府的形式；ForsuspendingourownLegislatures,anddeclaringthemselvesinvestedwithpowertolegislateforusinallcaseswhatsoever.中止我们自己的立法机关行使权力，宣称他们自己有权就一切事宜为我们制定法律。29 66’sEnglishGrammarinuseHehasabdicatedGovernmenthere,bydeclaringusoutofhisProtectionandwagingWaragainstus.他宣布我们已不属他保护之列，并对我们们作战，从而放弃了在这里的政务。Hehasplunderedourseas,ravagedourCoasts,burntourtowns,anddestroyedtheLivesofourpeople.他在我们的海域大肆掠夺，蹂躏我们沿海地区，焚烧我们的城镇，残害我们人民的生命。Heisatthistimetransportinglargearmiesofforeignmercenariestocompleattheworksofdeath,desolationandtyranny,alreadybegunwithcircumstancesofCruelty&perfidyscarcelyparalleledinthemostbarbarousages,andtotallyunworthytheHeadofacivilizednation.他此时正在运送大批外国佣兵来完成屠杀、破坏和肆虐的勾当，这种勾当早就开始，其残酷卑劣甚至在最野蛮的时代都难以找到先例。他完全不配作为一个文明国家的元首。HehasconstrainedourfellowCitizenstakenCaptiveonthehighSeastobearArmsagainsttheirCountry,tobecometheexecutionersoftheirfriendsandBrethren,ortofallthemselvesbytheirHands.他在公海上俘虏我们的同胞，强迫他们拿起武器来反对自己的国家，成为残杀自己亲人和朋友的刽子手，或是死于自己的亲人和朋友的手下。Hehasexciteddomesticinsurrectionsamongstus,andhasendeavouredtobringontheinhabitantsofourfrontiers,themercilessIndianSavages,whoseknownruleofwarfare,isanundistinguisheddestructionofallages,sexesandconditions.他在我们中间煽动内乱，并且竭力挑唆那些残酷无情、没有开化的印第安人来杀掠我们边疆的居民；而众所周知，印第安人的作战规律是不分男女老幼，一律格杀勿论的。IneverystageoftheseOppressionsWehavePetitionedforRedressinthemosthumbleterms:OurrepeatedPetitionshavebeenansweredonlybyrepeatedinjury.APrince,whosecharacteristhusmarkedbyeveryactwhichmaydefineaTyrant,isunfittobetherulerofafreepeople.在这些压迫的每一陷阶段中，我们都是用最谦卑的言辞请求改善；但屡次请求所得到的答复是屡次遭受损害。一个君主，当他的品格已打上了暴君行为的烙印时，是不配作自由人民的统治者的。NorhaveWebeenwantinginattentiontoourBritishbrethren.Wehavewarnedthemfromtimetotimeofattemptsbytheirlegislaturetoextendanunwarrantablejurisdictionoverus.We30 66’sEnglishGrammarinusehaveremindedthemofthecircumstancesofouremigrationandsettlementhere.Wehaveappealedtotheirnativejusticeandmagnanimity,andwehaveconjuredthembythetiesofourcommonkindredtodisavowtheseusurpations,whichwouldinevitablyinterruptourconnectionsandcorrespondence.Theytoohavebeendeaftothevoiceofjusticeandofconsanguinity.Wemust,therefore,acquiesceinthenecessity,whichdenouncesourSeparation,andholdthem,asweholdtherestofmankind,EnemiesinWar,inPeaceFriends.我们不是没有顾念我们英国的弟兄。我们时常提醒他们，他们的立法机关企图把无理的管辖权横加到我们的头上。我们也曾把我们移民来这里和在这里定居的情形告诉他们。我们曾经向他们天生的正义善感和雅量呼吁，我们恳求他们念在同种同宗的份上，弃绝这些掠夺行为，以免影响彼此的关系和往来。但是他们对于这种正义和血缘的呼声，也同样充耳不闻。因此，我们实在不得不宣布和他们脱离，并且以以对待世界上其它民族一样的态度对待他们：和我们作战，就是敌人；和我们和好，就是朋友。We,therefore,theRepresentativesoftheunitedStatesofAmerica,inGeneralCongress,Assembled,appealingtotheSupremeJudgeoftheworldfortherectitudeofourintentions,do,intheName,andbyAuthorityofthegoodPeopleoftheseColonies,solemnlypublishanddeclare,ThattheseUnitedColoniesare,andofRightoughttobeFreeandIndependentStates;thattheyareAbsolvedfromallAllegiancetotheBritishCrown,andthatallpoliticalconnectionbetweenthemandtheStateofGreatBritain,isandoughttobetotallydissolved;andthatasFreeandIndependentStates,theyhavefullPowertolevyWar,concludePeace,contractAlliances,establishCommerce,andtodoallotherActsandThingswhichIndependentStatesmayofrightdo.AndforthesupportofthisDeclaration,withafirmrelianceontheProtectionofDivineProvidence,wemutuallypledgetoeachotherourLives,ourFortunesandoursacredHonor.因此，我们，在大陆会议下集会的美利坚合众国代表，以各殖民地善良人民的名义，经他们授权，向全世界最崇高的正义呼吁，说明我们的严正意向，同时郑重宣布；这些联合一致的殖民地从此是自由和独立的国家，并且按其权利也必须是自由和独立的国家，它们取消一切对英国王室效忠的义务，它们和大不列颠国家之间的一切政治关系从此全部断绝，而且必须断绝；作为自由独立的国家，它们完全有权宣战、缔和、结盟、通商和采取独立国家有权采取的一切行动。为了支持这篇宣言，我们坚决信赖上帝的庇佑，以我们的生命、我们的财产和我们神圣的名誉，彼此宣誓。InCongress,July4,1776,大陆会议(一七七六年七月四日)31