英语100个经典故事.doc 39页

1Wecanreadofthingsthathappened5,000yearsagointheNearEast,wherepeoplefirstlearnedtowrite.Buttherearesomepartsoftheworldwhereevennowpeoplecannotwrite.Theonlywaythattheycanpreservetheirhistoryistorecountitassagas--legendshandeddownfromonegenerationofstory-tellerstoanother.Theselegendsareusefulbecausetheycantellussomethingaboutmigrationsofpeoplewholivedlongago,butnonecouldwritedownwhattheydid.AnthropologistswonderedwheretheremoteancestorsofthePolynesianpeoplesnowlivinginthePacificIslandscamefrom.ThesagasofthesepeopleexplainthatsomeofthemcamefromIndonesiaabout2,000yearsago.Butthefirstpeoplewhowerelikeourselveslivedsolongagothateventheirsagas,iftheyhadany,areforgotten.Soarchaeologistshaveneitherhistorynorlegendstohelpthemtofindoutwherethefirst"modernmen"camefrom.Fortunately,however,ancientmenmadetoolsofstone,especiallyflint,be-causethisiseasiertoshapethanotherkinds.Theymayalsohaveusedwoodandskins,butthesehaverottedaway.Stonedoesnotdecay,andsothetoolsoflongagohaveremainedwheneventhebonesofthemenwhomadethemhavedisappearedwithouttrace.2Why,youmaywonder,shouldspidersbeourfriends?Becausetheydestroysomanyinsects,andinsectsincludesomeofthegreatestenemiesofthehumanrace.Insectswouldmakeitimpossibleforustoliveintheworld;theywoulddevourallourcropsandkillourflocksandherds,ifitwerenotfortheprotectionwegetfrominsect-eatinganimals.Weowealottothebirdsandbeastswhoeatinsectsbutallofthemputtogetherkillonlyafractionofthenumberdestroyedbyspiders.Moreover,unlikesomeoftheotherinsecteaters,spidersneverdotheleastharmtousorourbelongings.Spidersarenotinsects,asmanypeoplethink,norevennearlyrelatedtothem.Onecantellthedifferencealmostataglanceforaspideralwayshaseightlegsandaninsectnevermorethansix.Howmanyspidersareengagedinthisworkonourbehalf?OneauthorityonspidersmadeacensusofthespidersinagrassfieldinthesouthofEngland,andheestimatedthatthereweremorethan2,250,000inoneacre,thatissomethinglike6,000,000spidersofdifferentkindsonafootballpitch.Spidersarebusyforatleasthalftheyearinkillinginsects.Itisimpossibletomakemorethanthewildestguessathowmanytheykill,buttheyarehungrycreatures,notcontentwithonlythreemealsaday.Ithasbeenestimatedthattheweightofallthein-sectsdestroyedbyspidersinBritaininoneyearwouldbegreaterthanthetotalweightofallthehumanbeingsinthecountry.T.H.GILLESPIESparethatSpiderfromTheListener3Modernalpiniststrytoclimbmountainsbyaroutewhichwillgivethemgoodsport,andthemoredifficultitis,themorehighlyitisregarded.Inthepioneeringdays,however,thiswasnotthecaseatall.Theearlyclimberswerelookingfortheeasiestwaytothetopbecausethesummitwastheprizetheysought,especi-allyifithadneverbeenattainedbefore.Itistruethatduringtheirexplorationstheyoftenfaceddifficultiesanddangersofthemostperilousnature,equipped39 inamannerwhichwouldmakeamodernclimbershudderatthethought,buttheydidnotgooutoftheirwaytocourtsuchexcitement.Theyhadasingleaim,asolitarygoal--thetop!Itishardforustorealizenowadayshowdifficultitwasforthepioneers.Ex-ceptforoneortwoplacessuchasZermattandChamonix,whichhadrapidlybecomepopular,Alpinevillagestendedtobeimpoverishedsettlementscutofffromcivilizationbythehighmountains.Suchinnsastherewereweregenerallydirtyandflea-ridden;thefoodsimplylocalcheeseaccompaniedbybreadoftentwelvemonthsold,allwasheddownwithcoarsewine.Oftenavalleyboastednoinnatall,andclimbersfoundshelterwherevertheycould--sometimeswiththelocalpriest(whowasusuallyaspoorashisparishioners),sometimeswithshep-herdsorcheesemakers.Invariablythebackgroundwasthesame:dirtandpoverty,andveryuncomfortable.Formenaccustomedtoeatingseven-coursedinnersandsleepingbetweenfinelinensheetsathome,thechangetotheAlpsmusthavebeenveryhardindeed.4IntheSovietUnionseveralcaseshavebeenreportedrecentlyofpeoplewhocanreadanddetectcolourswiththeirfingers,andevenseethroughsoliddoorsandwalls.Onecaseconcernsan"eleven-year-oldschoolgirl,VeraPetrova,whohasnormalvisionbutwhocanalsoperceivethingswithdifferentpartsofherskin,andthroughsolidwalls.Thisabilitywasfirstnoticedbyherfather.Onedayshecameintohisofficeandhappenedtoputherhandsonthedoorofalockedsafe.Suddenlysheaskedherfatherwhyhekeptsomanyoldnewspaperslockedawaythere,andevendescribedthewaytheyweredoneupinbundles.Vera"scurioustalentwasbroughttothenoticeofascientificresearchinstituteinthetownofUIyanovsk,nearwhereshelives,andinAprilshewasgivenaseriesoftestsbyaspecialcommissionoftheMinistryofHealthoftheRussianFederalRepublic.Duringthesetestsshewasabletoreadanewspaperthroughanopaquescreenand,strangerstill,bymovingherelbowoverachild"sgameofLottoshewasabletodescribethefiguresandcoloursprintedonit;and,inan-otherinstance,wearingstockingsandslippers,tomakeoutwithherfoottheoutlinesandcoloursofapicturehiddenunderacarpet.Otherexperimentsshowedthatherkneesandshouldershadasimilarsensitivity.DuringallthesetestsVerawasblindfold;and,indeed,exceptwhenblindfoldshelackedtheabilitytoperceivethingswithherskin.ltwasalsofoundthatalthoughshecouldperceivethingswithherfingersthisabilityceasedthemomentherhandswerewet.Lesson5ThegorillaissomethingofaparadoxintheAfricanscene.Onethinksoneknowshimverywell.Forahundredyearsormorehehasbeenkilled,captured,andimprisoned,inzoos.Hisboneshavebeenmountedinnaturalhistorymuseumseverywhere,andhehasalwaysexertedastrongfascinationuponscien-tistsandromanticsalike.Heisthestereotypedmonsterofthehorrorfilmsandtheadventurebooks,andanobvious(thoughnotperhapsstrictlyscientific)linkwithourancestralpast.Yetthefactisweknowverylittleaboutgorillas.Noreallysatisfactoryphoto-graphhaseverbeentakenofoneinawildstate,nozoologist,howeverintrepid,39 hasbeenabletokeeptheanimalundercloseandconstantobservationinthedarkjunglesinwhichhelives.CarlAkeley,theAmericannaturalist,ledtwoexpeditionsinthenineteen-twenties,andnowliesburiedamongtheanimalshelovedsowell.Butevenhewasunabletodiscoverhowlongthegorillalives,orhoworwhyitdies,norwasheabletodefinetheexactsocialpatternofthefamilygroups,orindicatethefinalextentoftheirintelligence.AllthisandmanyotherthingsremainalmostasmuchamysteryastheywerewhentheFrenchexplorerDuChaillufirstdescribedtheanimaltothecivilizedworldacenturyago.TheAbominableSnowmanwhohauntstheimaginationofclimbersintheHimalayasishardlymoreelusive.Lesson6Peoplearealwaystalkingabout"theproblemofyouth".Ifthereisone--whichItakeleavetodoubt--thenitisolderpeoplewhocreateit,nottheyoungthem-selves.Letusgetdowntofundamentalsandagreethattheyoungareafterallhumanbeings--peoplejustliketheirelders.Thereisonlyonedifferencebe-tweenanoldmanandayoungone:theyoungmanhasagloriousfuturebeforehimandtheoldonehasasplendidfuturebehindhim:andmaybethatiswheretherubis.WhenIwasateenager,IfeltthatIwasjustyounganduncertain--thatIwasanewboyinahugeschool,andIwouldhavebeenverypleasedtoberegardedassomethingsointerestingasaproblem.Foronething,beingaproblemgivesyouacertainidentity,andthatisoneofthethingstheyoungarebusilyengagedinseeking.Ifindyoungpeopleexciting.Theyhaveanairoffreedom,andtheyhavenotadrearycommitmenttomeanambitionsorloveofcomfort.Theyarenotanxioussocialclimbers,andtheyhavenodevotiontomaterialthings.AllthisseemstOmetolinkthemwithlife,andtheoriginsofthings.It"sasiftheywereinsomesensecosmicbeingsinviolentanlovelycontrastwithussuburbancreatures.AllthatisinmymindwhenImeetayoungperson.Hemaybeconceited,ill-mannered,presumptuousoffatuous,butIdonotturnforprotectiontodrearyclichesaboutrespectforelders--asifmereagewereareasonforrespect.Iacceptthatweareequals,andIwillarguewithhim,asanequal,ifIthinkheiswrong.Lesson7IamalwaysamazedwhenIhearpeoplesayingthatsportcreatesgoodwillbe-tweenthenations,andthatifonlythecommonpeoplesoftheworldcouldmeetoneanotheratfootballorcricket,theywouldhavenoinclinationtomeetonthebattlefield.Evenifonedidn"tknowfromconcreteexamples(the1936OlympicGames,forinstance)thatinternationalsportingcontestsleadtoorgiesofhatred,onecoulddeduceitfromgeneralprinciples.Nearlyallthesportspractisednowadaysarecompetitive.Youplaytowin,andthegamehaslittlemeaningunlessyoudoyourutmosttowin.Onthevillagegreen,whereyoupickupsidesandnofeelingoflocalpatriotismisinvolved,itispossibletoplaysimplyforthefunandexercise:butassoonasthequestionofprestigearises,assoonasyoufeelthatyouandsomelargerunitwillbedis-gracedifyoulose,themostsavagecombativeinstinctsarearoused.Anyonewhohasplayedeveninaschoolfootballmatchknowsthis.Attheinternationallevel39 sportisfranklymimicwarfare.Butthesignificantthingisnotthebehaviouroftheplayersbuttheattitudeofthespectators:and,behindthespectators,ofthenations.whoworkthemselvesintofuriesovertheseabsurdcontests,andseriouslybelieve--atanyrateforshortperiods--thatrunning,jumpingandkickingaballaretestsofnationalvirtue.Lesson8Parentshavetodomuchlessfortheirchildrentodaythantheyusedtodo,andhomehasbecomemuchlessofaworkshop.Clothescanbeboughtreadymade,washingcangotothelaundry,foodcanbeboughtcooked,cannedorpreserved,breadisbakedanddeliveredbythebaker,milkarrivesonthedoorstep,mealscanbehadattherestaurant,theworks"canteen,andtheschooldining-room.Itisunusualnowforfathertopursuehistradeorotheremploymentathome,andhischildrenrarely,ifever,seehimathisplaceofwork.Boysarethereforeseldomtrainedtofollowtheirfather"soccupation,andinmanytownstheyhaveafairlywidechoiceofemploymentandsodogirls.Theyoungwage-earneroftenearnsgoodmoney,andsoonacquiresafeelingofeconomicindependence.Intextileareasithaslongbeencustomaryformotherstogoouttowork,butthispracticehasbecomesowidespreadthattheworkingmotherisnowanotun-usualfactorinachild"shomelife,thenumberofmarriedwomeninemploymenthavingmorethandoubledinthelasttwenty-fiveyears.Withmotherearningandhisolderchildrendrawingsubstantialwagesfatherisseldomthedominantfigurethathestillwasatthebeginningofthecentury.Whenmotherworkseconomicadvantagesaccrue,butchildrenlosesomethingofgreatvalueifmother"semploymentpreventsherfrombeinghometogreetthemwhentheyreturnfromschool.Lesson9Notallsoundsmadebyanimalsserveaslanguage,andwehaveonlytoturntothatextraordinarydiscoveryofecho-locationinbatstoseeacaseinwhichthevoiceplaysastrictlyutilitarianrole.Togetafullappreciationofwhatthismeanswemustturnfirsttosomerecenthumaninventions.Everyoneknowsthatifheshoutsinthevicinityofawalloramountainside,anechowillcomeback.Thefurtheroffthissolidobstructionthelongertimewillelapseforthereturnoftheecho.Asoundmadebytappingonthehullofashipwillbereflectedfromtheseabottom,andbymeasuringthetimeintervalbetweenthetapsandthereceiptoftheechoesthedepthoftheseaatthatpointcanbecalculated.Sowasborntheecho-soundingapparatus,nowingeneraluseinships.Everysolidobjectwillreflectasound,varyingac-cordingtothesizeandnatureoftheobject.Ashoaloffishwilldothis.Soitisacomparativelysimplestepfromlocatingtheseabottomtolocatingashoaloffish.Withexperience,andwithimprovedapparatus,itisnowpossiblenotonlytolocateashoalbuttotellifitisherring,cod,orotherwell-knownfish,bythepatternofitsecho.Afewyearsagoitwasfoundthatcertainbatsemitsqueaksandbyreceivingtheechoestheycouldlocateandsteerclearofobstacles--orlocateflyinginsectsonwhichtheyfeed.Thisecho-locationinbatsisoftencomparedwithradar,theprincipleofwhichissimilar.Lesson1039 Inournewsocietythereisagrowingdislikeoforiginal,creativemen.Themani-pulateddonotunderstandthem;themanipulatorsfearthem.Thetidycom-mitteemenregardthemwithhorror,knowingthatnopigeonholescanbefoundforthem.Wecoulddowithafeworiginal,creativemeninourpoliticallife--ifonlytocreatesomeenthusiasm,releasesomeenergy--butwherearethey?Weareaskedtochoosebetweenvariousshadesofthenegative.Theengineisfallingtopieceswhilethejointownersofthecararguewhetherthefootbrakeorthehandbrakeshouldbeapplied.Noticehowthecold,colourlessmen,withoutideasandwithnootherpassionbutacravingforsuccess,getoninthissociety,capturingoneplumafteranotherandtakingthejuiceandtasteoutofthem.Sometimesyoumightthinkthemachinesweworshipmakeallthechiefappoint-ments,promotingthehumanbeingswhoseemclosesttothem.Betweenmid-nightanddawn,whensleepwillnotcomeandalltheoldwoundsbegintoache,Ioftenhaveanightmarevisionofafutureworldinwhichtherearebillionsofpeople,allnumberedandregistered,withnotagleamofgeniusanywhere,notanoriginalmind,arichpersonality,onthewholepackedglobe.Thetwinidealsofourtime,organizationandquantity,willhavewonforever.Lesson11AlfredtheGreatactedashisownspy,visitingDanishcampsdisguisedasaminstrel.Inthosedayswanderingminstrelswerewelcomeeverywhere.Theywerenotfightingmen,andtheirharpwastheirpassport.Alfredhadlearnedmanyoftheirballadsinhisyouth,andcouldvaryhisprogrammewithacrobatictricksandsimpleconjuring.WhileAlfred"slittlearmyslowlybegantogatheratAthelney,thekinghimselfsetouttopenetratethecampofGuthrum,thecommanderoftheDanishin-vaders.ThesehadsettleddownforthewinteratChippenham:thitherAlfredwent.Henoticedatoncethatdisciplinewasslack:theDaneshadtheself-confidenceofconquerors,andtheirsecurityprecautionswerecasual.Theylivedwell,ontheproceedsofraidsonneighbouringregions.Theretheycollectedwomenaswellasfoodanddrink,andalifeofeasehadmadethemsoft.AlfredstayedinthecampaweekbeforehereturnedtoAthelney.TheforcethereassembledwastrivialcomparedwiththeDanishhorde.ButAlfredhaddeducedthattheDaneswerenolongerfitforprolongedbattle:andthattheircommissariathadnoorganization,butdependedonirregularraids.So,facedwiththeDanishadvance,Alfreddidnotriskopenbattlebutharriedtheenemy.Hewasconstantlyonthemove,drawingtheDanesafterhim.Hispatrolshaltedtheraidingparties:hungerassailedtheDanisharmy.NowAlfredbeganalongseriesofskirmishes--andwithinamonththeDaneshadsur-rendered.Theepisodecouldreasonablyserveasauniqueepicofroyalespionage!Lesson12WhatcharacterizesalmostallHollywoodpicturesistheirinneremptiness.Thisiscompensatedforbyanouterimpressiveness.Suchimpressivenessusuallytakestheformoftrulygrandioserealism.Nothingissparedtomakethesetting,thecostumes,allofthesurfacedetailscorrect.Theseeffortshelptomasktheessentialemptinessofthecharacterization,andtheabsurditiesandtrivialitiesoftheplots.Thehouseslooklikehouses,thestreetslooklikestreets;thepeoplelookandtalklikepeople;buttheyareemptyofhumanity,credibility,andmoti-39 vation.Needlesstosay,thedisgracefulcensorshipcodeisanimportantfactorinpredeterminingthecontentofthesepictures.Butthecodedoesnotdisturbtheprofits,northeentertainmentvalueofthefilms;itmerelyhelpstopreventthemfrombeingcredible.Itisn"ttooheavyaburdenfortheindustrytobear.Inadditiontotheimpressivenessofthesettings,thereisauseofthecamera,whichattimesseemsmagical.Butofwhathumanimportisallthisskill,allthiseffort,allthisenergyintheproductionofeffects,whenthestory,therepresenta-tionoflifeishollow,stupid,banal,childish?Lesson13Oxfordhasbeenruinedbythemotorindustry.ThepeacewhichOxfordonceknew,andwhichagreatuniversitycityshouldalwayshave,hasbeensweptruth-lesslyaway;andnobenefactionsandresearchendowmentscanmakeupforthechangeincharacterwhichthecityhassuffered.AtsixinthemorningtheoldcourtsshaketotheroarofbusestakingthenextshifttoCowleyandPressedSteel,greatlorrieswithadoubledeckcargoofcarsforexportlumberpastMagdalenandtheUniversityChurch.Loadsofmotor-enginesarehurriedhitherandthitherandthestreetsarethrongedwithapopulationwhichhasnointerestinlearningandknowsnostudiesbeyondservo-systemsanddistributors,compressionratiosandcamshafts.Theoreticallythemarriageofanoldseatoflearningandtraditionwithanewandwealthyindustrymightbeexpectedtoproducesomeinterestingchildren.Itmighthavebeenthoughtthatthecultureoftheuniversitywouldradiateoutandtransformthelivesoftheworkers.Thatthishasnothappenedmaybethefaultoftheuniversity,foratbothOxfordandCambridgethecollegestendtoliveinanerawhichiscertainlynotofthetwentiethcentury,anduponaplanetwhichbearslittleresemblancetothewar-tornEarth.WhereverthefaultmayliethefactremainsthatitisthetheatreatOxfordandnotatCambridgewhichisonthevergeofextinction,andtheonlyfruitofthecombinationofindustryandtherarefiedatmosphereoflearningisthedustinthestreets,andapatheticsenseofbeinglostwhichhangsoversomeofthecolleges.Lesson14Someoldpeopleareoppressedbythefearofdeath.Intheyoungthereisajusti-ficationforthisfeeling.Youngmenwhohavereasontofearthattheywillbekilledinbattlemayjustifiablyfeelbitterinthethoughtthattheyhavebeencheatedofthebestthingsthatlifehastooffer.Butinanoldmanwhohasknownhumanjoysandsorrows,andhasachievedwhateverworkitwasinhimtodo,thefearofdeathissomewhatabjectandignoble.Thebestwaytoovercomeit-soatleastitseemstome----istomakeyourinterestsgraduallywiderandmoreimpersonal,untilbitbybitthewallsoftheegorecede,andyourlifebecomesin-creasinglymergedintheuniversallife.Anindividualhumanexistenceshouldbelikeariver--smallatfirst,narrowlycontainedwithinitsbanks,andrushingpassionatelypastbouldersandoverwaterfalls.Graduallytherivergrowswider,thebanksrecede,thewatersflowmorequietly,andintheend,withoutanyvisiblebreak,theybecomemergedinthesea,andpainlesslylosetheirindividualbeing.Themanwho,inoldage,canseehislifeinthisway,willnotsufferfromthefearofdeath,sincethethingshecaresforwillcontinue.Andit,withthedecayofvitality,wearinessincreases,thethoughtofrestwillbenotunwelcome.39 Ishouldwishtodiewhilestillatwork,knowingthatotherswillcarryonwhatIcannolongerdo,andcontentinthethoughtthatwhatwaspossiblehasbeendone.Lesson15Whenanyoneopensacurrentaccountatabank,heislendingthebankmoney,repaymentofwhichhemaydemandatanytime,eitherincashorbydrawingachequeinfavourofanotherperson.Primarily,thebanker-customerrelationshipisthatofdebtorandcreditor--whoiswhichdependingonwhetherthecus-tomer"saccountisincreditorisoverdrawn.But,inadditiontothatbasicallysimpleconcept,thebankanditscustomerowealargenumberofobligationstooneanother.Manyoftheseobligationscangiverisetoproblemsandcomplica-tionsbutabankcustomer,unlike,say,abuyerofgoods,cannotcomplainthatthelawisloadedagainsthim.Thebankmustobeyitscustomer"sinstructions,andnotthoseofanyoneelse.When,forexample,acustomerfirstopensanaccount,heinstructsthebanktodebithisaccountonlyinrespectofchequesdrawnbyhimself.Hegivesthebankspecimensofhissignature,andthereisaveryfirmrulethatthebankhasnorightorauthoritytopayoutacustomer"smoneyonachequeonwhichitscus-tomer"ssignaturehasbeenforged.Itmakesnodifferencethattheforgerymayhavebeenaveryskilfulone:thebankmustrecognizeitscustomer"ssignature.Forthisreasonthereisnorisktothecustomerinthemodernpractice,adoptedbysomebanks,ofprintingthecustomer"snameonhischeques.Ifthisfacilitatesforgeryitisthebankwhichwilllose,notthecustomer.Lesson16Thedeepestholesofallaremadeforoil,andtheygodowntoasmuchas25,000feet.Butwedonotneedtosendmendowntogettheoilout,aswemustwithothermineraldeposits.Theholesareonlyborings,lessthanafootindiameter.Myparticularexperienceislargelyinoil,andthesearchforoilhasdonemoretoimprovedeepdrillingthananyotherminingactivity.Whenithasbeendecidedwherewearegoingtodrill,weputupatthesurfaceanoilderrick.Ithastobetallbecauseitislikeagiantblockandtackle,andwehavetolowerintothegroundandhauloutofth.groundgreatlengthsofdrillpipewhicharerotatedbyanengineatthetopandarefittedwithacuttingbitatthebottom.Thegeologistneedstoknowwhatrocksthedrillhasreached,soeverysooftenasampleisobtainedwithacoringbit.Itcutsacleancylinderofrock,fromwhichcanbeseenhestratathedrillhasbeencuttingthrough.Oncewegetdowntotheoil,itusuallyflowstothesurfacebecausegreatpressure,eitherfromgasorwater,ispushingit.Thispressuremustbeundercontrol,andwecontrolitbymeansofthemudwhichwecirculatedownthedrillpipe.Weendeavourtoavoidtheold,romanticideaofagusher,whichwastesoilandgas.Wewantittostaydowntheholeuntilwecanleaditoffinacontrolledmanner.Lesson17Thefactthatwearenotsurewhat"intelligence"is,norwhatispassedon,doesnotpreventusfromfindingitaveryusefulworkingconcept,andplacingacer-tainamountofrelianceontestswhich"measure"it.Inanintelligencetestwetakeasampleofanindividual"sabilitytosolvepuzzlesandproblemsofvariouskinds,andifwehavetakenarepresentative39 sampleitwillallowustopredictsuccessfullythelevelofperformancehewillreachinawidevarietyofoccupations.Thisbecameofparticularimportancewhen,asaresultofthe1944EducationAct,secondaryschoolingforallbecamelaw,andgrammarschools,withtheex-ceptionofasmallnumberofindependentfoundationschools,becameavailabletothewholepopulation.Sincethenumberofgrammarschoolsinthecountrycouldaccommodateatmostapproximately25percentofthetotalchildpopu-lationofeleven-plus,somekindofselectionhadtobemade.Narrowlyacademicexaminationsandtestswerefelt,quiterightly,tobeheavilyweightedinfavourofchildrenwhohadhadtheadvantageofhighly-academicprimaryschoolsandacademicallybiasedhomes.Intelligencetestsweredevisedtocounteractthisnarrowspecialization,byintroducingproblemswhichwerenotbasedonspecifi-callyscholastically-acquiredknowledge.Theintelligencetestisanattempttoassessthegeneralabilityofanychildtothink,reason,judge,analyseandsyn-tiesizebypresentinghimwithsituations,bothverbalandpractical,whicharewithinhisrangeofcompetenceandunderstanding.Lesson18Twofactorsweighheavilyagainsttheeffectivenessofscientificinin-dustry.Oneisthegeneralatmosphereofsecrecyinwhichitiscarriedout,theotherthelackoffreedomoftheindividualresearchworker.Insofarasanyinquiryisasecretone,itnaturallylimitsallthoseengagedincarryingitoutfromeffectivecontactwiththeirfellowscientistseitherinothercountriesorinuniversities,oreven,oftenenough,inotherdepartmentsofthesamefirm.Thedegreeofsecrecynaturallyvariesconsiderably.Someofthebiggerfirmsareen-gagedinresearcheswhichareofsuchgeneralandfundamentalnaturethatitisapositiveadvantagetothemnottokeepthemsecret.Yetagreatmanyprocessesdependingonsuchresearcharesoughtforwithcompletesecrecyuntilthestageatwhichpatentscanbetakenout.Evenmoreprocessesareneverpatentedatallbutkeptassecretprocesses.Thisappliesparticularlytochemicalindustries,wherechancediscoveriesplayamuchlargerpartthantheydoinphysicalandmechanicalindustries.Sometimesthesecrecygoestosuchanextentthatthewholenatureoftheresearchcannotbementioned.Manyfirms,forinstance,havegreatdifficultyinobtainingtechnicalorscientificbooksfromlibrariesbe-causetheyareunwillingtohavetheirnamesenteredashavingtakenoutsuchandsuchabookforfeartheagentsofotherfirmsshouldbeabletotracethekindofresearchtheyarelikelytobeundertaking.Lesson19Agentlemanis,ratherthandoes.Heisinterestedinnothinginaprofessionalway.Heisallowedtocultivatehobbies,eveneccentricities,butmustnotprac-tiseavocation.Hemustknowhowtorideandshootandcastafly.Heshouldhaverelativesinthearmyandnavyandatleastoneconnectioninthediplo-maticservice.ButthereareweaknessesintheEnglishgentleman"sabilitytoruleustoday.Heusuallyknowsnothingofpoliticaleconomyandlessabouthowforeigncountriesaregoverned.Hedoesnotrespectlearningandprefers"sport".Theproblemsetforsocietyisnotthevirtuesofthetypesomuchasitsadequacyforitsfunction,andheregravedifficultiesarise.Herefusestoconsidersuf-ficientlythewantsofthecustomer,whomustbuy,notthethinghedesiresbut39 thethingtheEnglishgentlemanwantstosell.Heattendsinadequatelytotechno-logicaldevelopment.Disbelievinginthenecessityoflarge-scaleproductioninthemodernworld,heispassionatelydevotedtoexcessivesecrecy,bothinfinanceandmethodofproduction.Hehasanincurableandwidespreadnepotisminappointment,discountingabilityandrelyinguponamysticentitycalled"character,"whichmeans,inagentleman"smouth,thequalitieshetraditionallypossesseshimself.Hislackofimaginationandthenarrownessofhissocialloyal-tieshaverangedagainsthimoneofthefundamentalestatesoftherealm.Heisincapableofthatimaginativerealismwhichadmitsthatthisisanewworldtowhichhemustadjusthimselfandhisinstitutions,thateveryprivilegeheformelytookasofrighthecannowattainonlybyofferingproofthatitisdirectlyrelevanttosocialwelfare.Lesson20Intheorganizationofindustriallifetheinfluenceofthefactoryuponthephysio-logicalandmentalstateoftheworkershasbeencompletelyneglected.Modernindustryisbasedontheconceptionofthemaximumproductionatlowestcost,inorderthatanindividualoragroupofindividualsmayearnasmuchmoneyaspossible.Ithasexpandedwithoutanyideaofthetruenatureofthehumanbeingswhorunthemachines,andwithoutgivinganyconsiderationtotheeffectspro-ducedontheindividualsandontheirdescendantsbytheartificialmodeofexist-enceimposedbythefactory.Thegreatcitieshavebeenbuiltwithnoregardforus.Theshapeanddimensionsoftheskyscrapersdependentirelyontheneces-sityofobtainingthemaximumincomepersquarefootofground,andofofferingtothetenantsofficesandapartmentsthatpleasethem.Thiscausedtheconstruc-tionofgiganticbuildingswheretoolargemassesofhumanbeingsarecrowdedtogether.Civilizedmenlikesuchawayofliving.Whiletheyenjoythecomfortandbanalluxuryoftheirdwelling,theydonotrealizethattheyaredeprivedofthenecessitiesoflife.Themoderncityconsistsofmonstrousedificesandofdark,narrowstreetsfullofpetrolfumes,coaldust,andtoxicgases,tornbythenoiseofthetaxi-cabs,lorriesandbuses,andthrongedceaselesslybygreatcrowds.Obviously,ithasnobeenplannedforthegoodofitsinhabitants.Lesson21IntheearlydaysofthesettlementofAustralia,enterprisingsettlersunwiselyintroducedtheEuropeanrabbit.ThisrabbithadnonaturalenemiesintheAn-tipodes,sothatitmultipliedwiththatpromiscuousabandoncharacteristicofrabbits.Itoverranawholecontinent.Itcauseddevastationbyburrowingandbydevouringtheherbagewhichmighthavemaintainedmillionsofsheepandcattle.Scientistsdiscoveredthatthisparticularvarietyofrabbit(andapparentlynootheranimal)wassusceptibletoafatalvirusdisease,myxomatosis.Byinfect-inganimalsandlettingthemlooseintheburrows,localepidemicsofthisdiseasecouldbecreated.Lateritwasfoundthattherewasatypeofmosquitowhichactedasthecarrierofthisdiseaseandpasseditontotherabbits.Sowhiletherestoftheworldwastryingtogetridofmosquitoes,Australiawasencouragingthisone.Iteffectivelyspreadthediseasealloverthecontinentanddrasticallyreducedtherabbitpopulation.ltlaterbecameapparentthatrabbitswerede-velopingadegreeofresistancetothisdisease,sothattherabbitpopulationwasunlikelytobecompletelyexterminated.Therewerehopes,however,thatthe39 problemoftherabbitwouldbecomemanageable.Ironically,Europe,whichhadbequeathedtherabbitasapesttoAustraliaacquiredthisman-madediseaseasapestilence.AFrenchphysiciandecidedtogetridofthewildrabbitsonhisownestateandintroducedmyxomatosis.Itdidnot,however,remainwithintheconfinesofhisestate.ItspreadthroughFrancewherewildrabbitsarenotgenerallyregardedasapestbutasasportandausefulfoodsupply,anditspreadtoBritainwherewildrabbitsareregardedasapestbutwheredomesticatedrabbits,equallysusceptibletothedisease,arethebasisofaprofitablefurindustry.ThequestionbecameoneofwhetherMancouldcon-trolthediseasehehadinvented.Lesson22Therehaslongbeenasuperstitionamongmarinersthatporpoiseswillsavedrowningmenbypushingthemtothesurface,orprotectthemfromsharksbysurroundingthemindefensiveformation.MarineStudiobiologistshavepointedoutthat,howeverintelligenttheymaybe,itisprobablyamistaketocreditdol-phinswithanymotiveoflife-saving.Ontheoccasionswhentheyhavepushedtoshoreanunconscioushumanbeingtheyhavemuchmorelikelydoneitoutofcuriosityorforsport,asinridingthebowwavesofaship.In1928someporpoiseswerephotographedworkinglikebeaverstopushashoreawaterloggedmattress.If,ashasbeenreported,theyhaveprotectedhumansfromsharks,itmayhavebeenbecausecuriosityattractedthemandbecausethescentofapossiblemealattractedthesharks.Porpoisesandsharksarenaturalenemies.Itispossiblethatuponsuchanoccasionabattleensued,withthesharksbeingdrivenawayorkilled.Whetheritbebird,fishorbeast,theporpoiseisintriguedwithanythingthatisalive.Theyareconstantlyaftertheturtles,theFerdinandsofmarinelife,whopeacefullysubmittoallsortsofindignities.Oneyoungcalfespeciallyenjoyedraisingaturtletothesurfacewithhissnoutandthenshovinghimacrossthetanklikeanaquaplane.Almostanydayayoungporpoisemaybeseentryingtoturna300-poundseaturtleoverbystickinghissnoutundertheedgeofhisshellandpushingupfordearlife.Thisisnoteasy,andmayrequiretwoporpoisesworkingtogether.Inanothergame,astheturtleswimsacrosstheoceanarium,thefirstporpoiseswoopsdownfromaboveandbuttshisshellwithhisbelly.Thisknockstheturtledownseveralfeet.Henosoonerrecovershisequilibriumthanthenextporpoisecomesalongandhitshimanothercrack.Eventuallytheturtlehasbeenbuttedallthewaydowntothefloorofthetank.Heisnowsatis-fiedmerelytotrytostandup,butassoonashedoessoaporpoiseknockshimflat.Theturtleatlastgivesupbypullinghisfeetunderhisshellandthegameisover.Lesson23Itisfairlyclearthatthesleepingperiodmusthavesomefunction,andbecausethereissomuchofitthefunctionwouldseemtobeimportant.Speculationsaboutitsnaturehavebeengoingonforliterallythousandsofyears,andoneoddfindingthatmakestheproblempuzzlingisthatitlooksverymuchasifsleepingisnotsimplyamatterofgivingthebodyarest."Rest",intermsofmusclerelaxa-tionandsoon,canbeachievedbyabriefperiodlying,orevensittingdown.Thebody"stissuesareself-repairingandself-restoringtoadegree,andfunctionbest39 whenmoreorlesscontinuouslyactive.Infactabasicamountofmovementoccursduringsleepwhichisspecificallyconcernedwithpreventingmuscleinactivity.Ifitisnotaquestionofrestingthebody,thenperhapsitisthebrainthatneedsresting?Thismightbeaplausiblehypothesiswereitnotfortwofactors.Firsttheelectroencephalograph(whichissimplyadeviceforrecordingtheelectricalactivityofthebrainbyattachingelectrodestothescalp)showsthatwhilethereisachangeinthepatternofactivityduringsleep,thereisnoevidencethatthetotalamountofactivityisanyless.Thesecondfactorismoreinterestingandmorefundamental.Inl960anAmericanpsychiatristnamedWilliamDementpublishedexperimentsdealingwiththerecordingofeye-movementsduringsleep.Heshowedthattheaverageindividual"ssleepcycleispunctuatedwithpeculiarburstsofeye-movements,somedriftingandslow,othersjerkyandrapid.Peoplewokenduringtheseperiodsofeye-movementsgenerallyreportedthattheyhadbeendreaming.Whenwokenatothertimestheyreportednodreams.Ifonegroupofpeopleweredisturbedfromtheireye-movementsleepforseveralnightsonend,andanothergroupweredisturbedforanequalperiodoftimebutwhentheywerenotexhibitingeye-movements,thefirstgroupbegantoshowsomepersonalitydisorderswhiletheothersseemedmoreorlessunaffected.Theimplicationsofallthiswerethatitwasnotthedisturbanceofsleepthatmattered,butthedisturbanceofdreaming.Lesson24Walkingforwalking"ssakemaybeashighlylaudableandexemplaryathingasitisheldtobebythosewhopractiseit.Myobjectiontoitisthatitstopsthebrain.ManyamanhasprofessedtomethathisbrainneverworkssowellaswhenheisswingingalongthehighroadoroverhillanddaleThisboastisnotconfirmedbymymemoryofanybodywhoonaSundaymorninghasforcedmetopartakeofhisadventure.Experienceteachesmethatwhateverafellow-guestmayhaveofpowertoinstructortoamusewhenheissittinginachair,orstand-ingonahearth-rug,quicklyleaveshimwhenhetakesoneoutforawalk.Theideasthatcomesothickandfasttohiminanyroom,wherearetheynow?wherethatencyclopaedicknowledgewhichheboresolightly?wherethekindlingfancythatplayedlikesummerlightningoveranytopicthatwasstarted?Theman"sfacethatwassomobileissetnow;goneisthelightfromhisfineeyes.HesaysthatA(ourhost)isathoroughlygoodfellow.Fiftyyardsfurtheron,headdsthatAisoneofthebestfellowshehasevermet.WetrampanotherfurlongorsoandhesaysthatMrsAisacharmingwoman.Presentlyheaddsthatsheisoneofthemostcharmingwomenhehaseverknown.Wepassaninn.Hereadsvapidlyaloudtome:"TheKing"sArms.LicensedtosellAlesandSpirits."Iforeseethatduringtherestofthewalkhewillreadaloudanyinscriptionthatoccurs.Wepassamilestone.Hepointsatitwithhisstick,andsays"Uxminster.IIMiles."Weturnasharpcorneratthefootofthehill.Hepointsatthewall,andsays"DriveSlowly.".Iseefarahead,ontheothersideofthehedgeborderingthehighroad,asmallnotice-board.Heseesittoo.Hekeepshiseyeonit.Andinduecourse."Trespassers,"hesays,"willbeProsecuted."Poorman!--mentallyawreck.Lesson25Howitcameaboutthatsnakesmanufacturedpoisonisamystery.Overthe39 periodstheirsaliva,amild,digestivejuicelikeourown,wasconvertedintoapoisonthatdefiesanalysiseventoday.Itwasnotforceduponthembythesur-vivalcompetition;theycouldhavecaughtandlivedonpreywithoutusingpoisonjustasthethousandsofnon-poisonoussnakesstilldo.Poisontoasnakeismerelyaluxury;itenablesittogetitsfoodwithverylittleeffort,nomoreeffortthanonebite.Andwhyonlysnakes?Cats,forinstance,wouldbegreatlyhelped;norunningrightswithlarge,fierceratsortussleswithgrownrabbits-justabiteandnomoreeffortneeded.Infactitwouldbeanassistancetoallthecarnivorae--thoughitwouldbeatwo-edgedweapon-Whentheyfoughteachother.But,ofthevertebrates,unpredictableNatureselectedonlysnakes(andonelizard).OnewondersalsowhyNature,withsomesnakesconcoctedpoisonofsuchextremepotency.Intheconversionofsalivaintopoisononemightsupposethatafixedprocesstookplace.Itdidnot;somesnakesmanufacturedapoisondifferentineveryre-spectfromthatofothers,asdifferentasarsenicisfromstrychnine,andhavingdifferenteffects.Onepoisonactsonthenerves,theotherontheblood.Themakersofthenervepoisonincludethemambasandthecobrasandtheirvenomiscalledneurotoxic.Vipers(adders)andrattlesnakesmanufacturethebloodpoison,whichisknownashaemolytic.Bothpoisonsareunpleasant,butbyfarthemoreunpleasantisthebloodpoison.Itissaidthatthenervepoisonisthemoreprimitiveofthetwo,thatthebloodpoisonis,sotospeak,anewerproductfromanimprovedformula.Bethatasitmay,thenervepoisondoesitsbusinesswithmanfarmorequicklythanthebloodpoison.This,however,meansnothing.Snakesdidnotacquiretheirpoisonforuseagainstmanbutforuseagainstpreysuchasratsandmice,andtheeffectsontheseofviperinepoisonisalmostimmediate.Lesson26WilliamS.Hartwas,perhaps,thegreatestofallWesternstars,forunlikeGaryCooperandJohnWayneheappearedinnothingbutWesterns.From1914to1924hewassupremeandunchallenged.ItwasHartwhocreatedthebasicformulaoftheWesternfilm,anddevisedtheprotagonistheplayedineveryfilmhemade,thegood-badman,theaccidental,nobleoutlaw,orthehonestbutframedcowboy,orthesheriffmadesuspectbyviciousgossip;inshort,theindi-vidualinconflictwithhimselfandhisfrontierenvironment.UnlikemostofhiscontemporariesinHollywood,Hartactually"knewsome-thingoftheoldWest.Hehadlivedinitasachildwhenitwasalreadydisappear-ing,andhisherowasfirmlyrootedinhismemoriesandexperiences,andinboththehistoryandthemythologyofthevanishedfrontier.AndalthoughnoperiodorplaceinAmericanhistoryhasbeenmoreabsurdlyromanticized,mythandrealitydidjoinhandsinatleastonearena,theconflictbetweentheindividualandencroachingcivilization.MenaccustomedtostrugglingforsurvivalagainsttheelementsandIndianwerebewilderedbypoliticians,bankersandbusiness-men,andunhorsedbyfences,lawsandalientaboos.Hart"sgood-badmanwasalwaysanoutsider,alwaysoneofthedisinherited,andifhefounditnecessarytoshootasherifforrobabankalongtheway,hisearlyaudiencesfounditeasytounderstandandforgive,especiallywhenitwasHartwho,intheend,overcametheattacking39 Indians.Audiencesintheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcenturyfounditpleasanttoescapetoatimewhenlife,thoughhard,wasrelativelysimple.Westilldo;livinginaworldinwhichundeclaredaggression,war,hypocrisy,chicanery,anarchyandimpendingimmolationarepartofourdailylives,weallwantacodetoliveby.Lesson27Whydoestheideaofprogressloomsolargeinthemodernworld?Surelybe-causeprogressofaparticularkindisactuallytakingplacearoundusandisbecomingmoreandmoremanifest.Althoughmankindhasundergonenogeneralimprovementinintelligenceormorality,ithasmadeextraordinaryprogresstheaccumulationofknowledge.Knowledgebegantoincreaseassoonasthethoughtsofoneindividualcouldbecommunicatedtoanotherbymeansofspeech.Withtheinventionofwriting,agreatadvancewasmade,forknowledgecouldthenbenotonlycommunicatedbutalsostored.Librariesmadeeducationpossible,andeducationinitsturnaddedtolibraries:thegrowthofknowledgefollowedakindofcompound-interestlaw,whichwasgreatlyenhancedbytheinventionofprinting.Allthiswascomparativelyslowuntil,withthecomingscience,thetempowassuddenlyraised.Thenknowledgebegantobeaccumu-latedaccordingtoasystematicplan.Thetricklebecameastream;thestreamhasnowbecomeatorrent.Moreover,assoonasnewknowledgeisacquired,itisnowturnedtopracticalaccount.Whatiscalled"moderncivilization"isnottheresultofabalanceddevelopmentofallman"snature,butofaccumulatedknowledgeappliedtopracticallife.Theproblemnowfacinghumanityis:Whatisgoingtobedonewithallthisknowledge?Asissooftenpointedout,knowledgeisatwo-edgedweaponwhichcanbeusedequallyforgoodorevil.Itisnowbeingusedindifferentlyforboth.Couldanyspectacle,forinstance,bemoregrimlywhimsicalthanthatofgunnersusingsciencetoshattermen"sbodieswhile,closeathand,surgeonsuseittorestorethem?Wehavetoaskourselvesveryseriouslywhatwillhappenifthistwofolduseofknowledge,withitsever-increasingpower,continues.Lesson28Notwosortsofbirdspractisequitethesamesortofflight;thevarietiesareinfi-nite,buttwoclassesmayberoughlyseen.Anyshipthatcrossesthepacificisaccompaniedformanydaysbythesmalleralbatross,whichmaykeepcompanywiththevesselforanhourwithoutvisibleormorethanoccasionalmovementofwing.Thecurrentsofairthatthewallsoftheshipdirectupwards,aswellasinthelineofitscourseareenoughtogivethegreatbirdwithitsimmensewingssufficientsustenanceandprogress.Thealbatrossisthekingofthegliders,theclassofflierswhichharnesstheairtotheirpurpose,butmustyieldtoitsopposi-tion.Inthecontraryschooltheduckissupreme.Itcomesnearertotheengineswithwhichmanhas"conquered"theair,asheboasts.Duck,andlikethemthepigeons,areendowedwithsteel-likemuscles,thatareagoodpartoftheweightofthebird,andthesewillplytheshortwingswithirresistiblepowerthattheycanboreforlongdistancesthroughanoppositegalebeforeexhaustionfollows.Theirhumblerfollowers,suchaspartridges,havealikepowerofstrongpropul-sion,butsoontire.Youmaypickthemupinutterexhaustion,ifwindoverthe39 seahasdriventhemtoalongjourney.Theswallowsharesthevirtuesofbothschoolsinhighestmeasure.Ittiresnotnordoesitboastofitspower;butbelongstotheair,travellingitmaybesixthousandmilestoandfromitsnorthernnestinghomefeedingitsflownyoungasitfliesandslippingthroughamediumthatseemstohelpitspassageevenwhenthewindisadverse.Suchbirdsdousgood,thoughwenolongertakeomensfromtheirflightonthissideandthat,andeventhemostsuperstitiousvillagersnolongertakeofftheirhatstothemagpieandwishitgood-morning.Lesson29Ayoungmanseesasunsetand,unabletounderstandortoexpresstheemotionthatitrousesinhim,concludesthatitmustbethegatewaytoaworldthatliesbeyond.Itisdifficultforanyofusinmomentsofintenseaestheticexperiencetoresistthesuggestionthatwearecatchingaglimpseofalightthatshinesdowntousfromadifferentrealmofexistence,differentand,becausetheexperienceisintenselymoving,insomewayhigher.And,thoughthegleamsblindanddazzle,yetdotheyconveyahintofbeautyandserenitygreaterthanwehaveknownorimagined.Greatertoothanwecandescribe,forlanguage,whichwasinventedtoconveythemeaningsofthisworld,cannotreadilybefittedtotheusesofanother.Thatallgreatarthasthispowerofsuggestingaworldbeyondisundeniable.InsomemoodsNaturesharesit.ThereisnoskyinJunesobluethatitdoesnotpointforwardtoabluer,nosunsetsobeautifulthatitdoesnotwakenthevisionofagreaterbeauty,avisionwhichpassesbeforeitisfullyglimpsed,andinpassingleavesanindefinablelongingandregret.But,ifthisworldisnotmerelyabadjoke,lifeavulgarflareamidthecoolradianceofthestars,andexistenceanemptylaughbrayingacrossthemysteries;iftheseintimationsofasomethingbehindandbeyondarenotevilhumourbornofindigestion,orwhimsiessentbythedeviltomockandmaddenus,if,inaword,beautymeanssomething,yetwemustnotseektointerpretthemeaning.Ifweglimpsetheunutterable,itisun-wisetotrytoutterit,norshouldweseektoinvestwithsignificancethatwhichwecannotgrasp.Beautyintermsofourhumanmeaningsismeaningless.Lesson30Eachcivilizationisborn,itculminates,anditdecays.Thereisawidespreadtestimonythatthisominousfactisduetoinherentbiologicaldefectsinthecrowdedlifeofcities.Now,slowlyandatfirstfaintly,anoppositetendencyisshowingitself.Betterroadsandbettervehiclesatfirstinducedthewealthierclassestoliveontheoutskirtsofthecities.Theurgentneedfordefencehadalsovanished.Thistendencyisnowspreadingrapidlydownwards.Butanewsetofconditionsisjustshowingitself.Uptothepresenttime,throughouttheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,thisnewtendencyplacedthehomeintheimmediatesuburbs,butconcentratedmanufacturingactivity,businessrelations,govern-ment,andpleasureinthecentresofthecities.Apartfromthecareofchildrenandperiodsofsheerrest,theactiveliveswerespentinthecities.Insomewaystheconcentrationofsuchactivitieswasevenmoreemphasized,andthehomeswerepushedoutwardsevenatthecostofthediscomfortofcommuting.But,ifweexaminethetrendoftechnologyduringthepastgeneration,thereasonsforthisconcentrationarelargelydisappearing.Stillmore,thereasonsforthechoice39 ofsitesforcitiesarealsoaltering.Mechanicalpowercanbetransmittedforhundredsofmiles,mencancommunicatealmostinstantaneouslybytelephone,thechiefsofgreatorganizationscanbetransportedbyairplanes,thecinemascanproduceplaysineveryvillage,music,speeches,andsermonscanbebroadcast.Almosteveryreasonforthegrowthofthecities,concurrentlywiththegrowthofcivilizationhasbeenprofoundlymodified.Lesson31ManypeopleinindustryandtheServices,whohavepracticalexperienceofnoise,regardanyinvestigationofthisquestionasawasteoftime;theyarenotpreparedeventoadmitthepossibilitythatnoiseaffectspeople.Ontheotherhand,thosewhodislikenoisewillsometimesusemostinadequateevidencetosupporttheirpleasforaquietersociety.Thisisapity,becausenoiseabatementreallyisagoodcause.anditislikelytobediscreditedifitgetstobeassociatedwithbadscience.Oneallegationoftenmadeisthatnoiseproducesmentalillness.Arecentarticleinaweeklynewspaper,forinstance,washeadedwithastrikingillustrationofaladyinastateofconsiderabledistress,withthecaption"Shewasyetanothervictim,reducedtoascreamingwreck".Onturningeagerlytothetext,onelearnsthattheladywasatypistwhofoundthesoundofofficetypewritersworriedhermoreandmoreuntileventuallyshehadtogointoamentalhospital.Nowthesnaginthissortofanecdoteisofcoursethatonecannotdistinguishcauseandeffect.Wasthenoiseacauseoftheillness,orwerethecomplaintsaboutnoisemerelyasymptom?Anotherpatientmightequallywellcomplainthatherneigh-bourswerecombiningtoslanderherandpersecuteher,andyetonemightbecautiousaboutbelievingthisstatement.Whatisneededinthecaseofnoiseisastudyoflargenumbersofpeoplelivingundernoisyconditions,todiscoverwhethertheyarementallyillmoreoftenthanotherpeopleare.TheUnitedStatesNavy,forinstance,recentlyexaminedaverylargenumberofmenworkingonaircraftcarriers:thestudywasknownasProjectAnehin.Itcanbeunpleasanttoliveevenseveralmilesfromanaerodrome;ifyouthinkwhatitmustbeliketosharethedeckofashipwithseveralsquad-ronsofjetaircraft,youwillrealizethatamodernnavyisagoodplacetostudynoise.ButneitherpsychiatricinterviewsnorobjectivetestswereabletoshowanyeffectsupontheseAmericansailors.ThisresultmerelyconfirmsearlierAmericanandBritishstudies:ifthereisanyeffectofnoiseuponmentalhealthitmustbesosmallthatpresentmethodsofpsychiatricdiagnosiscannotfindit.Thatdoesnotprovethatitdoesnotexist;butitdoesmeanthatnoiseislessdangerousthan,say,beingbroughtupinanorphanages--whichreallyisamentalhealthhazard.Lesson32Itisanimalsandplantswhichlivedinornearwaterwhoseremainsaremostlikelytobepreserved,foroneofthenecessaryconditionsofpreservationisquickburial,anditisonlyintheseasandrivers,andsometimeslakes,wheremudandsilthavebeencontinuouslydeposited,thatbodiesandthelikecanberapidlycoveredoverandpreserved.Buteveninthemostfavourablecircumstancesonlyasmallfractionofthecreaturesthatdiearepreservedinthiswaybeforedecaysetsinor,evenmore39 likely,beforescavengerseatthem.Afterall,alllivingcreatureslivebyfeedingonsomethingelse,whetheritbeplantoranimal,deadoralive,anditisonlybychancethatsuchafateisavoided.Theremainsofplantsandanimalsthatlivedonlandaremuchmorerarelypreserved,forthereisseldomanythingtocoverthemover.Whenyouthinkoftheinnumerablebirdsthatoneseesflyingabout,nottomentiontheequallynumeroussmallanimalslikefieldmiceandvoleswhichyoudonotsee,itisveryrarelythatonecomesacrossadeadbody,except,ofcourse,ontheroads.Theydecomposeandarequicklydestroyedbytheweatheroreatenbysomeothercreature.Itisalmostalwaysduetosomeveryspecialcircumstancesthattracesoflandanimalssurvive,asbyfallingintoinaccessiblecaves,orintoanicecrevasse,liketheSiberianmammoths,whenthewholeanimalissometimespreserved,asinarefrigerator.ThisiswhathappenedtothefamousBeresovkamammothwhichwasfoundpreservedandingoodcondition.Inhismouthweretheremainsoffirtrees--thelastmealthathehadbeforehefellintothecrevasseandbrokehisback.ThemammothhasnowbeenrestoredinthePalaeontologicalMuseuminLeningrad.Otheranimalsweretrappedintarpits,liketheelephants,sabre-toothedcats,andnumerousothercreaturesthatarefoundatRancholaBrea,whichisnowjustasuburbofLosAngeles.Apparentlywhathappenedwasthatwatercollectedonthesetarpits,andthebiggeranimalsliketheelephantsven-turedoutontotheapparentlyfirmsurfacetodrink,andwerepromptlyboggedinthetar.Andthen,whentheyweredead,thecarnivores,likethesabre-toothedcatsandthegiantwolves,cameouttofeedandsufferedexactlythesamefate.Therearealsoendlessnumbersofbirdsinthetaraswell.Lesson33Fromtheseventeenth-centuryempireofSweden,thestoryofagalleonthatsankatthestartofhermaidenvoyagein1628mustbeoneofthestrangesttalesofthesea.FornearlythreeandahalfcenturiesshelayatthebottomofStock-holmharbouruntilherdiscoveryin1956.ThiswastheVasa,royalflagshipofthegreatimperialfleet.KingGustavusAdolphus,"TheNorthernHurricane",thenattheheightofhismilitarysuccessintheThirtyYears"War,haddictatedhermeasurementsandarmament.Triplegun-decksmountedsixty-fourbronzecannon.ShewasintendedtoplayaleadingroleinthegrowingmightofSweden.AsshewaspreparedforhermaidenvoyageonAugust10,1628,Stockholmwasinaferment.FromtheSkeppsbronandsurroundingislandsthepeoplewatchedthisthingofbeautybegintospreadhersailsandcatchthewind.Theyhadlabouredforthreeyearstoproducethisfloatingworkofart;shewasmorerichlycarvedandornamentedthananypreviousship.Thehighsterncastlewasariotofcarvedgods,demons,knights,kings,warriors,mermaids,cherubs;andzoomorphicanimalshapesablazewithredandgoldandblue,symbolsofcourage,power,andcruelty,wereportrayedtostirtheimaginationsofthesuperstitioussailorsoftheday.ThenthecannonsoftheanchoredwarshipsthunderedasalutetowhichtheVasafiredinreply.Assheemergedfromherdriftingcloudofgunsmokewiththewaterchurnedtofoambeneathherbow,herflagsflying,pennantswaving,sailsfillinginthebreeze,andtheredandgoldofhersuperstructureablazewith39 colour,shepresentedamoremajesticspectaclethanStockholmershadeverseenbefore.Allgun-portswereopenandthemuzzlespeepedwickedlyfromthem.Asthewindfreshenedtherecameasuddensquallandtheshipmadeastrangemovement,listingtoport.TheOrdnanceOfficerorderedalltheportcannontobeheavedtostarboardtocounteractthelist,butthesteepeningangleofthedecksincreased.Thenthesoundofrumblingthunderreachedthewatchersontheshore,ascargo,ballast,ammunitionand400peoplewentslidingandcrashingdowntotheportsideofthesteeplylistingship.Thelowergun-portswerenowbelowwaterandtheinrushsealedtheship"sfate.Inthatfirstglorioushour,themightyVasa,whichwasintendedtoruletheBaltic,sankwithallflagsflying--intheharbourofherbirth.Lesson34Thisisascepticalage,butalthoughourfaithinmanyofthethingsinwhichourforefathersferventlybelievedhasweakened,ourconfidenceinthecurativepropertiesofthebottleofmedicineremainsthesameastheirs.ThismodernfaithinmedicinesisrovedbythefactthattheannualdrugbilloftheHealthServicesismountingtoastronomicalfiguresandshowsnosignsatpresentofceasingtorise.Themajorityofthepatientsattendingthemedicalout-patientsdepartmentsofourhospitalsfeelthattheyhavenotreceivedadequatetreatmentunlesstheyareabletocarryhomewiththemsometangibleremedyintheshapeofabottleofmedicine,aboxofpills,orasmalljarofointment,andthedoctorinchargeofthedepartmentisonlytooreadytoprovidethemwiththeserequire-ments.Thereisnoquickermethodofdisposingofpatientsthanbygivingthemwhattheyareaskingfor,andsincemostmedicalmenintheHealthServicesareoverworkedandhavelittletimeforofferingtime-consumingandlittle-appre-ciatedadviceonsuchsubjectsasdiet,rightliving,andtheneedforabandoningbadhabits,etc.,thebottle,thebox,andthejararealmostalwaysgrantedthem.Norisitonlytheignorantandill-educatedpersonwhohassuchfaithinthebottleofmedicine,especiallyifitbewrappedinwhitepaperandsealedwithadabofredsealing-waxbyacleverchemist.ItisrecountedofThomasCarlylethatwhenheheardoftheillnessofhisfriend,HenryTaylor,hewentoffimmediatelytovisithim,carryingwithhiminhispocketwhatremainedofabottleofmedicineformerlyprescribedforanindispositionofMrsCarlyle"s.Carlylewasentirelyignorantofwhatthebottleinhispocketcontained,ofthenatureoftheillnessfromwhichhisfriendwassuffering,andofwhathadpre-viouslybeenwrongwithhiswife,butamedicinethathadworkedsowellinoneformofillnesswouldsurelybeofequalbenefitinanother,andcomfortedbythethoughtofthehelphewasbringingtohisfriend,hehastenedtoHenryTaylor"shouse.Historydoesnotrelatewhetherhisfriendacceptedhismedicalhelp,butinallprobabilityhedid.Thegreatadvantageoftakingmedicineisthatitmakesnodemandsonthetakerbeyondthatofputtingupforamomentwithadisgustingtaste,andthatiswhatallpatientsdemandoftheirdoctors--tobecuredatnoinconveniencetothemselves.Lesson35Manystrangenewmeansoftransporthavebeendevelopedinourcentury,thestrangestofthembeingperhapsthehovercraft.In1953,aformerelectronicsengineerinhisfifties,ChristopherCockerell,whohadturnedtoboat-building39 ontheNorfolkBroads,suggestedanideaonwhichhehadbeenworkingformanyyearstotheBritishGovernmentandindustrialcircles.Itwastheideaofsupportingacraftona"pad",orcushion,oflow-pressureair,ringedwithacur-tainofhigherpressureair.Eversince,peoplehavehaddifficultyindecidingwhetherthecraftshouldberangedamongships,planes,orlandvehicles--foritissomethinginbetweenaboatandanaircraft.Asashipbuilder,Cockerellwastryingtofindasolutiontotheproblemofthewaveresistancewhichwastesagooddealofasurfaceship"spowerandlimitsitsspeed.Hisanswerwastoliftthevesseloutofthewaterbymakingitrideonacushionofair,nomorethanoneortwofeetthick.Thisisdonebyagreatnumberofring-shapedairjetsonthebottomofthecraft.It"flies",therefore,butitcannotflyhigher--itsactionde-pendsonthesurface,waterorground,overwhichitrides.ThefirsttestsontheSolentin1959causedasensation.Thehovercrafttravelledfirstoverthewater,thenmountedthebeach,climbedupthedunes,andsatdownonaroad.LateritcrossedtheChannel,ridingsmoothlyoverthewaves,whichpresentednoproblem.Sincethattime,varioustypesofhovercrafthaveappearedandtakenupregularservice--cruisesontheThamesinLondon,forinstance,havebecomeanannualattraction.Butweareonlyatthebeginningofadevelopmentthatmaytransportnet-seaandlandtransport.ChristopherCockerell"scraftcanestablishtransportworksinlargeareaswithpoorcommunicationssuchasAfricaorAustralia;itcanbecomea"flyingfruit-bowl",carryingbananasfromtheplantationstotheports,gianthovercraftlinerscouldspantheAtlantic;andtherailwayofthefuturemaywellbethe"hovertrain",ridingonitsaircushionoverasinglerail,whichitnevertouches,atspeedsupto300m.p.h.--thepossibilitiesappearunlimited.Lesson36Ourknowledgeoftheoceansahundredyearsagowasconfinedtothetwo-dimen-sionalshapeofthesea-surfaceandthehazardsofnavigationpresentedbytheirregularitiesindepthoftheshallowwaterclosetotheland.Theopenseawasdeepandmysterious,andanyonewhogavemorethanapassingthoughttothebottomconfinesoftheoceansprobablyassumedthatthesea-bedwasflat.SirJamesClarkRosshadobtainedasoundingofover2,400fathomsin1836butitwasnotuntil1800,whenH.M.S.PorcupinewasputatthedisposaloftheRoyalSocietyforseveralcruises,thataseriesofdeepsoundingswasobtainedintheAtlanticandthefirstsampleswerecollectedbydredgingthebottom.ShortlyafterthisthefamousH.M.S.Challengerexpeditionestablishedthestudyofthesea-floorasasubjectworthyofthemostqualifiedphysicistsandgeologists.AburstofactivityassociatedwiththelayingofsubmarinecablessoonconfirmedtheChallenger"sobservationthatmanypartsoftheoceanweretwotothreemilesdeep,andtheexistenceofunderwaterfeaturesofconsiderablemagnitude.TodayenoughsoundingsareavailabletoenableareliefmapoftheAtlantictobedrawnandweknowsomethingofthegreatvarietyofthesea-bed"stopo-graphy.Sincetheseacoversthegreaterpartoftheearth"ssurfaceitisquitereasonabletoregardthesea-floorasthebasicformofthecrustoftheearth,withsuperimposeduponitthecontinents,togetherwiththeislandsandotherfeaturesoftheoceans.Thecontinentsformruggedtablelandswhichstandnearlythree39 milesabovetheflooroftheopenocean.Fromtheshore-lineouttoadistancewhichmaybeanywherefromafewmilestoafewhundredmilesrunsthegentleslopeofthecontinentalshelf,geologicallypartofthecontinents.Therealdividing-linebetweencontinentsandoceansoccursatthefootofasteeperslope.Thiscontinentalslopeusuallystartsataplacesomewhereneartheice-fathommarkandinthecourseofafewhundredmilesreachesthetrueocean-floorat2,500-3,000fathoms.Theslopeaveragesabout1in30,butcontainssteep,probablyvertical,cliffs,andgentlesediment-coveredterraces,andnearitslowerreachesthereisalongtailing-offwhichisalmostcertainlytheresultofmaterialtransportedouttodeepwaterafterbeingerodedfromthecontinentalmasses.Lesson37TheVictorians,realizingthatthegreatesthappinessaccordedtomanisthatprovidedbyahappymarriage,endeavouredtopretendthatalltheirmarriageswerehappy.We,forourpart,admittingthefactthatnofeatofintelligenceandcharacterissoexactingasthatrequiredoftwopeoplewhodesiretoliveper-manentlytogetheronabasisofamity,areobsessedbytheproblemofhowtorenderthebasicfactsofcohabitationsimplerandmorereasonable,inorderthatunhappymarriagesmaylessfrequentlyresult.TheVictorianswouldhavecon-sideredit"painful"or"unpleasant"wereonetopointoutthatonlyfourmarriagesoutofeverytenareanythingbutforcedservitudes.Weourselvesstartfromthisveryassumptionandtrytobuildfromitatheoryofmoresensiblerelationsbe-tweenthesexes.OfallformsofarrantuntruthfulnessVictorianoptimismap-pearstometohavebeenthemostcowardlyandthemostdamaging.Truth,therefore,isanattitudeofthemind.ltisimportant,ifonedoesnotwishtoinconvenienceandtoboreone"sfriends,nottotelllies.Butitismoreimportantnottothinklies,ortoslideintothosemechanicalanduntruthfulhabitsofthoughtwhicharesopleasantandsoeasyasdescentstomentalinepti-tude.Thevictorianhabitofmind(whichIconsidertohavebeenabadhabitofmind)wasundulypreoccupiedbywhatwassociallyandmorallyconvenient.Convenienceis,however,inallaffairsoflife,anexecrabletestofvalue.Oneshouldhavethecouragetothinkuncomfortably,sinceitisonlybyrejectingtheconvenientthatonecancometothinkthetruth.Not,afterall,thatthereisanysuchthingastruth.Atbestwecanapproachtosomerelativeapproximation.Ontheotherhand,thereissurelysuchathingasuntruth.Oneisgenerallyawarewhenonehassaidsomething,oractedinsomewaywhichhasleftonotherpeopleanimpressionnotstrictlyinaccordancewiththefacts.Oneisgenerallyaware,also.whenonehasthrustasideaninconvenientthoughtandslidintoitsplaceanotherthoughtwhichisconvenient.One"sawarenessintheformercaseisingeneralmoreacutethaninthelatter,sincewearemoreonthelook-outfortheliesweutterthanforthosewemerelythink.Infact,however,itistheuntruthfulthoughtwhichisthemoreviciousofthetwo.Spokenliesareinvariablytiresomeandmayactuallybedishonest.Butcon-tinuouslyinginthemind,adiseasetowhichtheAnglo-Saxonispeculiarlyex-posed,spellsthedestructionofhumanthoughtandcharacter.Lesson38Appreciationofsculpturedependsupontheabi8litytorespondtoforminthreedimensions.Thatisperhapswhysculpturehasbeendescribedasthemost39 difficultofallarts;certainlyitismoredifficultthantheartswhichinvolveap-preciationofflatforms,shapeinonlytwodimensions.Manymorepeopleare"form-blind"thancolour-blind.Thechildlearningtosee,firstdistinguishesonlytwo-dimensionalshape;itcannotjudgedistances,depths.Later,foritspersonalsafetyandpracticalneeds,ithastodevelop(partlybymeansoftouch)theabilitytojudgeroughlythree-dimensionaldistances.Buthavingsatisfiedtherequire-mentsofpracticalnecessity,mostpeoplegonofurther.Thoughtheymayattainconsiderableaccuracyintheperceptionofflatform,theydonotmakethefurtherintellectualandemotionaleffortneededtocomprehendforminitsfullspatialexistence.thisiswhatthesculptormustdo.Hemuststrivecontinuallytothinkof,anduse,forminitsfullspatialcompleteness.Hegetsthesolidshape,asitwere,in-sidehishead--hethinksofit,whateveritssize,asifhewereholdingitcompletelyenclosedinthehollowofhishand.Hementallyvisualizesacomplexformfromallrounditself;heknowswhilehelooksatonesidewhattheothersideislike;heidentifieshimselfwithitscentreofgravity,itsmass,itsweight;herealizesitsvolume,asthespacethattheshapedisplacesintheair.Andthesensitiveobserverofsculpturemustalsolearntofeelshapesimplyasshape,notasdescriptionorreminiscence.Hemust,forexample,perceiveaneggasasimplesinglesolidshape,quiteapartfromitssignificanceasfood,orfromtheliteraryideathatitwillbecomeabird.Andsowithsolidssuchasashell,anut,aplum,apear,atadpole,amushroom,amountainpeak,akidney,acarrot,atree-trunk,abird,abud,alark,aladybird,abulrush,abone.Fromthesehecangoontoappreciatemorecomplexformsofcombinationsofseveralforms.Lesson39InhisownlifetimeGalileowasthecentreofviolentcontroversy;butthescien-tificdusthaslongsincesettled,andtodaywecanseeevenhisfamousclashwiththeInquisitioninsomethinglikeitsproperperspective.But,incontrast,itisonlyinmoderntimesthatGalileohasbecomeaproblemchildforhistoriansofscience.TheoldviewofGalileowasdelightfullyuncomplicated.Hewas,aboveall,amanwhoexperimented:whodespisedtheprejudicesandbooklearningoftheAristotelians,whoputhisquestionstonatureinsteadoftotheancients,andwhodrewhisconclusionsfearlessly.Hehadbeenthefirsttoturnatelescopetothesky,andhehadseenthereevidenceenoughtooverthrowAristotleandPtolemytogether.HewasthemanwhoclimbedtheLeaningTowerofPisaanddroppedvariousweightsfromthetop,whorolledballsdowninclinedplanes,andthengeneralizedtheresultsofhismanyexperimentsintothefamouslawoffreefall.Butacloserstudyoftheevidence,supportedbyadeepersenseoftheperiod,andparticularlybyanewconsciousnessofthephilosophicalundercurrentsinthescientificrevolution,hasprofoundlymodifiedthisviewofGalileo.Today,althoughtheoldGalileolivesoninmanypopularwritings,amonghistoriansofscienceanewandmoresophisticatedpicturehasemerged.AtthesametimeoursympathyforBalileo"sopponentshasgrownsomewhat.Histelescopicobserva-tionarejustlyimmortal;theyarousedgreatinterestatthetime,theyhadim-portanttheoreticalconsequences,andtheyprovidedastrikingdemonstrationof39 thepotentialitieshiddenininstrumentsandapparatus.ButcanweblamethosewholookedandfailedtoseewhatGalileosaw,ifwerememberthattouseatelescopeatthelimitofitspowerscallsforlongexperienceandintimatefamili-aritywithone"sinstrument?WasthephilosopherwhorefusedtolookthroughGalileo"stelescopemoreculpablethanthosewhoallegedthatthespiralnebulaeobservedwithLordRosse"sgreattelescopeintheeighteen-fortieswerescratchesleftbythegrinder?WecanperhapsforgivethosewhosaidthemoonsofJupiterwereproducedbyGalileo"sspy-glassifwerecallthatinhisday,asforcenturiesbefore,curvedglasswasthepopularcontrivanceforproducingnottruthbutillusion,untruth;andifasinglecurvedglasswoulddistortnature,howmuchmorewouldapairofthem?Lesson40Populationsincreaseanddecreaserelativelynotonlytooneanother,butalsotonaturalresources.Inmostpartsoftheworld,therelationbetweenpopulationandresourcesisalreadyunfavourableandwillprobablybecomeevenmoreun-favourableinthefuture.Thisgrowingpovertyinthemidstofgrowingpovertyconstitutesapermanentmenacetopeace.Andnotonlytopeace,butalsotodemocraticinstitutionsandpersonalliberty.Foroverpopulationisnotcom-patib1ewithfreedom.Anunfavourablerelationshipbetweennumbersandre-sourcestendstomaketheearningofalivingalmostintolerablydifficult.Labourismoreabundantthangoods,andtheindividualiscompelledtoworklonghoursforlittlepay.Nosurplusofaccumulatedpurchasingpowerstandsbetweenhimandthetyranniesofunfriendlynatureoroftheequallyunfriendlywieldersofpoliticalandeconomicpower.Democracyis,amongotherthings,theabilitytosay"no"totheboss.Butamancannotsay"no"totheboss,unlessheissureofbeingabletoeatwhentheboss"sfavourhasbeenwithdrawn.Andhecannotbecertainofhisnextmealunlessheownsthemeansofproducingenoughwealth,forhisfamilytoliveon,orhasbeenabletoaccumulateasurplusoutofpastwages,orhasachanceofmovingtovirginterritories,wherehecanmakeafreshstart.Inanovercrowdedcountry,veryfewpeopleownenoughtomakethemfinanciallyindependent;veryfewareinapositiontoaccumulatepurchasingpower;andthereisnofreeland.Moreover,inanycountrywherepopulationpressesharduponnaturalresources,thegeneraleconomicsituationisapttobesoprecariousthatgovernmentcontrolofcapitalandlabour,productionandcon-sumption,becomesinevitable.Itisnoaccidentthatthetwentiethcenturyshouldbethecenturyofhighlycentralizedgovernmentsandtotalitariandictatorships;ithadtobesoforthesimplereasonthatthetwentiethcenturyisthecenturyofplanetaryovercrowding.Lesson41Educationisoneofthekeywordsofourtime.Amanwithoutaneducation,manyofusbelieve,isanunfortunatevictimofadversecircumstancesdeprivedofoneofthegreatesttwentieth-centuryopportunities.Convincedoftheim-portanceofeducation,modernstates"invest"ininstitutionsoflearningtogetback"interest"intheformofalargegroupofenlightenedyoungmenandwomenwhoarepotentialleaders.Education,withitscyclesofinstructionsocarefullyworkedout,punctuatedbytext-books--thosepurchasablewellsofwisdom--whatwouldcivilizationbelikewithoutitsbenefits?39 Somuchiscertain:thatwewouldhavedoctorsandpreachers,lawyersanddefendantS,marriagesandbirths--butourspiritualoutlookwouldbedifferent.Wewouldlaylessstresson"factsandfigures"andmoreonagoodmemory,onappliedpsychology,andonthecapacityofamantogetalongwithhisfellow-citizens.Ifoureducationalsystemwerefashionedafteritsbooklesspastwewouldhavethemostdemocraticformof"college"imaginable.Amongthepeoplewhomweliketocallsavagesallknowledgeinheritedbytraditionissharedbyall;itistaughttoeverymemberofthetribesothatinthisrespecteverybodyis,equallyequippedforlife.Itistheidealconditionofthe"equalstart"whichonlyourmostprogressiveformsofmoderneducationtrytoregain.Inprimitiveculturestheobligationtoseekandtoreceivethetraditionalinstructionisbindingtoall.Thereareno"illiterates"--ifthetermcanbeappliedtopeopleswithoutascript--whileourowncompulsoryschoolattendancebecamelawinGermanyin1642,inFrancein1806,andinEnglandin1876,andisstillnon-existentinanumberof"civi-lized"nations.Thisshowshowlongitwasbeforewedeemeditnecessarytomakesurethatallourchildrencouldshareintheknowledgeaccumulatedbythe"happyfew"duringthepastcenturies.Educationinthewildernessisnotamatterofmonetarymeans.Allareentitledtoanequalstart.Thereisnoneofthehurrywhich,inoursociety,oftenhampersthefulldevelopmentofagrowingpersonality.There,achildgrowsupundertheever-presentattentionofhisparents,thereforethejunglesandthesavannahsknowofno"juveniledelinquency."Nonecessityofmakingalivingawayfromhomeresultsinneglectofchildren,andnofatherisconfrontedwithhisinabilityto"buy"aneducationforhischild.Lesson42Parentsareoftenupsetwhentheirchildrenpraisethehomesoftheirfriendsandregarditasaslurontheirowncooking,orcleaning,orfurniture,andoftenarefoolishenoughtolettheadolescentsseethattheyareannoyed.Theymayevenaccusethemofdisloyalty,ormakesomespitefulremarkaboutthefriends"parents.Suchalossofdignityanddescentintochildishbehaviouronthepartoftheadultsdeeplyshockstheadolescents,andmakesthemresolvethatinfuturetheywillnottalktotheirparentsabouttheplacesorpeopletheyvisit.Beforeverylongtheparentswillbecomplainingthatthechildissosecretiveandnevertellsthemanything,buttheyseldomrealizethattheyhavebroughtthisonthemselves.Disillusionmentwiththeparents,howevergoodandadequatetheymaybebothasparentsandasindividuals,istosomedegreeinevitable.Mostchildrenhavesuchahighidealoftheirparents,unlesstheparentsthemselveshavebeenunsatisfactory,thatitcahardlyhopetostanduptoarealisticevaluation.Parentswouldbegreatlysurprisedanddeeplytouchediftheyrealizehowmuchbelieftheirchildrenusuallyhaveintheircharacterandinfallibility,andhowmuchthisfaithmeanstoachild.Ifparentswerepreparedforthisadolescentreaction,andrealizedthatitwasasignthatthechildwasgrowingupanddevelopingvaluablepowersofobservationandindependentjudgement,theywouldnotbesohurt,andthereforewouldnotdrivethechildintooppositionbyresentingandresist-ingit.39 Theadolescent,withhispassionforsincerity,alwaysrespectsaparentwhoadmitsthatheiswrong,orignorant,oreventhathehasbeenunfairorunjust.Whatthechildcannotforgiveistheparents"refusaltoadmitthesechargesifthechildknowsthemtobetrue.Victorianparentsbelievedthattheykepttheirdignitybyretreatingbehindanunreasoningauthoritarianattitude;infactheydidnothingofthekind,butchildrenwerethentoocowedtoletthemknowhowtheyreallyfelt.Todaywetendtogototheotherextreme,butonthewholethisisahealthierattitudebothforthechildandtheparent.Itisalwayswiserandsafertofaceuptoreality,howeverpainfulitmaybeatthemoment.Lesson43Faithincontrollednuclearfissionisnowbeingshownbytheconstructionofatomicpowerstations.InBritain,CalderHallonthecoastofCumberlandfirstmadeitscontributiontotheNationalElectricitygridin1957.Subsequentlyachainofnuclearpowerstationswasplanned.Ofnecessitytheyaresitednearthecoastsortidalwaterbecauseoftheneedofmuchwaterforcoolingandacertaindischargeofpossibleradioactiveeffluent.Atomicpowerisassociatedinthepublicmindwiththedestructiveforceofatombombsandpartlyforthisreason,thoughitisclaimedthatthereisnodangertobeassociatedwithatomicpowerstations,theyarebeingsitedawayfrompopulouscentres.Thepresentpositionisthatthethreemainsourcesofpowerarecoal,oilandwaterpower.Wesometimesrefertoelectricity,gasorpetrolasiftheyweretheactualsourceofpower,forgettingthatelectricitymustbegeneratedbytheconsumptionofcoaloroilorbytheutilizationofwaterpower,whilstcoke,gasandpetrolareexamplesofsecondaryfuelsbywhichcoalandoilmaybemoreeffectivelyused.Wherealternativesourcesofpowerareavailabletherearesomemarkedcon-trastsinhandling.Thebulkandweightofcoalrequiredinthemajorityofmanufacturingindustriesislargeincomparisonwiththebulkandweightofotherrawmaterials.Thisisnotalwaystrue--waswiththemanufactureofpigironandsteelfromlow-gradeironores--butitdidleadtotheconcentrationofindustrialdevelopmentsonthecoal-fields,aphenomenonwellseeninsuchcountriesasBritainwheretheIndustrialRevolutioncamebeforethedaysofoilorelectricity.Coalbeingasolidmustbedistributedmainlybyrailorwater.Bywayofcontrastoilcanbetransportedlargedistancesbypipelinebutover-seasmovementhasinvolvedbuildingoflargenumbersoftankers,includingnowsomeofthelargestvesselsafloat.Unlesssuitableonothergroundsoilfieldshavenotbecomeindustrialregions;onthecontrarytheoilindustryismarkedbyacertainamountofsmellandanelementofdanger,hencethesitingofrefineriesatadistancefrompopulationcentres.Itisnotalwaysrealizedthattheownersofpipelinescanhandletheoilofdifferentcustomers,sendingitthroughatdif-ferent,periods.Naturalgascanalsobetransportedlargedistancesbypipe.Earlyin1959Britainreceivedthefirstshipcargoofnaturalgas----liquefiedforthepurposeoftransport.Lesson44Ifanationisessentiallydisunited,itislefttothegovernmenttoholdittogether.Thisincreasestheexpenseofgovernment,andreducescorrespondinglythe39 amountofeconomicresourcesthatcouldbeusedfordevelopingthecountry,Anditshouldnotbeforgottenhowsmallthoseresourcesareinapoorandback-wardcountry.Wherethecostofgovernmentishigh,resourcesfordevelopmentarecorrespondinglylow.Thismaybeillustratedbycomparingthepositionofanationwiththatofaprivatebusinessenterprise.Anenterprisehastoincurcertaincostsandexpensesinordertostayinbusiness.Forourpurposes,weareconcernedonlywithonekindofcost--thecostofmanagingandadministeringthebusiness.Suchadminis-trativeoverheadinabusinessisanalogoustothecostofgovernmentinanation.Theadministrativeoverheadofabusinessislowtotheextentthateveryoneworkinginthebusinesscan,betrustedtobehaveinawaythatbestpromotestheinterestsofthefirm.Iftheycaneachbetrustedtotakesuchresponsibilities,andtoexercisesuchinitiativeasfallswithintheirsphere,thenadministrativeoverheadwillbelow.Itwillbelowbecauseitwillbenecessarytohaveonlyonemanlookingaftereachjob,withouthavinganothermantocheckuponwhatheisdoing,keephiminline,andreportonhimtosomeoneelse.Butifnoonecanbetrustedtoactinaloyalandresponsiblemannertowardshisjob,thenthebusinesswillrequirearmiesofadministrators,checkers,andforemen,andad-ministrativeoverheadwillrisecorrespondingly.Asadministrativeoverheadrises,sotheearningsofthebusiness,aftermeetingtheexpenseofadministration,willfall;andthebusinesswillhavelessmoneytodistributeasdividendsorinvestdirectlyinitsfutureprogressanddevelopment.Itispreciselythesamewithanation.Totheextentthatthepeoplecanbereliedupontobehaveinaloyalandresponsiblemanner,thegovernmentdoesnotrequirearmiesofpoliceandcivilservantstokeeptheminorder.Butifanationisdisunited,thegovernmentcannotbesurethattheactionsofthepeoplewillbeintheinterestsofthenation;anditwillhavetowatch,check,andcontrolthepeopleaccordingly.Adisunitednationthereforehastoincurundulyhighcostsofgovernment.Lesson45Attheageoftwelveyears,thehumanbodyisatitsmostvigorous.Ithasyettoreachitsfullsizeandstrength,anditsownerhisorherfullintelligence;butatthisagethelikelihoodofdeathisleast.Earlierwewereinfantsandyoungchild-ren,andconsequentlymorevulnerable;later,weshallundergoaprogressivelossofourvigourandresistancewhich,thoughimperceptibleatfirst,willfinallybe-comesosteepthatwecanlivenolonger,howeverwellwelookafterourselves,andhoweverwellsociety,andourdoctors,lookafterus.Thisdeclineinvigourwiththepassingoftimeiscalledageing.Itisoneofthemostunpleasantdis-coverieswhichweallmakethatwemustdeclineinthisway,thatifweescapewars,accidentsanddiseasesweshalleventuallydieofoldage,andthatthishappensataratewhichdifferslittlefrompersontoperson,sothatthereareheavyoddsinfavourofourdyingbetweentheagesofsixty-fiveandeighty.Someofuswilldiesooner,afewwilllivelonger--onintoaninthortenthdecade.Butthechancesareagainstit,andthereisavirtuallimitonhowlongwecanhopetoremainalive,howeverluckyandrobustweare.Normalpeopletendtoforgetthisprocessunlessanduntiltheyareremindedofit.Wearesofamiliarwiththefactthatmanages,thatpeoplehaveforyears39 assumedthattheprocessoflosingvigourwithtime,ofbecomingmorelikelytodietheolderweget,wassomethingself-evident,likethecoolingofahotkettleorthewearing-outofapairofshoes.Theyhavealsoassumedthatallanimals,andprobablyotherorganismssuchastrees,oreventheuniverseitself,mustinthenatureofthings"wearout".Mostanimalswecommonlyobservedoinfactageaswedoifgiventhechancetolivelongenough;andmechanicalsystemslikeawoundwatchorthesun,doinfactrunoutofenergyinaccordancewiththesecondlawofthermodynamics(whetherthewholeuniversedoessoisamootpointatpresent).ButthesearenotanalogoustowhathappenswhenmanagesArun-downwatchisstillawatchandcanberewound.Anoldwatch,bycon-trast,becomessowornandunreliablethatiteventuallyisnotworthmendingButawatchcouldneverrepairitselfitdoesnotconsistoflivingparts,onlyofmetal,whichwearsawaybyfriction.Wecould,atonetime,repairourselveswellenough,atleast,toovercomeallbutthemostinstantlyfatalillnessesanaccidents.Betweentwelveandeightyyearswegraduallylosethispower;anillnesswhichattwelvewouldknockusover,ateightycanknockusout,andintoourgrave.Ifwecouldstayasvigorousasweareattwelve,itwouldtakeabout700yearsforhalfofustodie,andanother700forthesurvivorstobereducebyhalfagain.Lesson46Aftermillenniaofgrowthsoslowthateachgenerationhardlynoticedit,thecitiesaresuddenlyracingoffineverydirection.Theworldpopulationgoesupbytwopercentayear,citypopulationgoesupbyfourpercentayear,butinbigcitiestheratemaybeasmuchasfiveandsixpercentayear.Togiveonlyoneexampleofalmostvisibleacceleration,AthenstodaygrowsbythreedwellingsAnd100squaremetresofroadeveryhour.Thereisnoreasontobelievethatthispacewillslacken.Astechnologygraduallyswallowsupallformsofwork,indus-trialandagricultural,theruralareasaregoingtoshrink,justastheyhaveshrunkinBritain,andthevastmajorityoftheirpeoplewillmoveintothecity.Infact,inBritainnowonlyaboutfourorfivepercentofpeopleliveinruralareasanddependuponthem;allthroughthedevelopingworldthevanguardoftheruralexodushasreachedtheurbanfringesalready,andtheretheyhuddle,migrantsinthefavellasandbarriosofLatinAmerica,inshantytownsinAfrica,inthosehorrifyingencampmentsoneseesontheoutskirtsofCalcuttaandBombay.Weareheadingtowardsanurbanworld.Thisenormousincreasewillgoaheadwhateverwedo,andwehavetoremem-berthatthenewcitiesdevourspace.Peoplenowacquirefarmoregoodsandthings.Thereisagreaterdensityofhouseholdgoods;theydemandmoreser-vicessuchassewageanddrainage.Aboveallthecarchangeseverything:risingincomesandrisingpopulationscanmakeurbancardensityincreasebysome-thinglikefourandfivepercentinadecade;trafficflowsrisetofillwhateverscaleofhighwaysareprovidedforthem.Thecaralsohasacuriousambivalence:itcreatesandthenitdestroysmobility.Thecartemptspeoplefurtheroutandthengivesthemtheappallingproblemofgettingback.ItmakesthembelievetheycanspendSundayinBrighton,butmakesitimpossibleforthemtoreturnbefore,say,twointhemorning.Peoplegofurtherandfurtherawaytoreachopenairandcountrysidewhichcontinuouslyrecedesfromthem,andjustas39 theirworkingweeksdeclineandtheybegintohavemoretimeforleisure,theyfindtheycannotgettotheopenspacesortherecreationorthebeacheswhichtheynowhavethetimetoenjoy.Recentlysomestudiesweremadeinthebehaviourofmicewhenexposedtomorethanacertaindegreeofdensity,frustration,andnoise,andthemicejustbecamederanged.Ithinksomesociologistswonderwhetheritmightnotbethesameformen.Thiscombinationofveryhighdensityofpopulation,goodsandservices,andmachines,allincreasingwithalmostbruta1speed,doesaccountforsomereallyantisocialtendenciesinmodernurbangrowth.Lesson47ThemodernPlato,likehisancientcounterpart,hasanunboundedcontemptforpoliticiansandstatesmenandpartyleaderswhoarenotuniversitymen.Hefindspoliticsadirtygame,andonlyentersthemreluctantlybecauseheknowsthatattheveryleastheandhisfriendsarebetterthanthepresentgang.Broughtupinthetraditionsoftherulingclasses,hehasanaturalpityforthecommonpeoplewhomhehaslearnttoknowasservants,andobservedfromadistanceattheirworkinthefactory,attheirplayintheparksandholidayresorts.Hehasnevermixedwiththemorspokentothemonequalterms,buthasdemandedandgenerallyreceivedarespectduetohispositionandsuperiorintelligence.Heknowsthatiftheytrusthim,hecangivethemthehappinesswhichtheycrave.Amanofculture,hegenuinelydespisestheself-madeindustrialistandnews-paper-king:withamodestprofessionalsalaryandalittleprivateincomeofhisown,heregardsmoney-makingasvulgarandavoidsallostentation.Industryandfinanceseemtohimtobeactivitiesunworthyofgentlemen,although,alas,manyareforcedbyexigenciesofcircumstancetotakesomepartinthem.intellectual,hegentlylaughsatthesuperstitionsofmostChristians,butattendschurchregularlybecauseheseestheimportanceoforganizedreligionforthemaintenanceofsoundmoralityamongthelowerorders,andbecausehedislikesthescepticismandmaterialismofradicalteachers.Hisgenuinepassionsareforliteratureandthephilosophyofscienceandhewouldgladlyspendallhistimeinstudyingthem.Buttheplightoftheworldcompelshisunwillingatten-tion,andwhenheseesthathumanstupidityandgreedareabouttoplungeEuropeintochaosanddestroythemostgloriouscivilizationwhichtheworldhasknown,hefeelsthatitishightimeformenofgoodsenseandgoodwilltointer-veneandtotakepoliticsoutofthehandsoftheplutocratsoftheRightandthewoolly-mindedidealistsoftheLeft.Sinceheandhiskindaretheonlyrepresen-tativesofdecencycombinedwithintelligence,theymuststepdownintothearenaandsavethemassesforthemselves.Lesson48Ihaveknownveryfewwriters,butthoseIhaveknown,andwhomIrespected,confessatoncethattheyhavelittleideawheretheyarcgoingwhentheyfirstsetpentopaper.Theyhaveacharacter,perhapstwo,theyareinthatconditionofeagerdiscomfortwhichpassesforinspiration,alladmitradicalchangesofdestinationoncethejourneyhasbegun;one,tomycertainknowledge,spentninemonthsonanovelaboutKashmir,thenresetthewholethingintheScottishHighlands.Ineverheardofanyonemakinga"skeleton",asweweretaughtatschool.Inthebreakingandremaking,inthetiming,interweaving,beginning39 afresh,thewritercomestodiscernthingsinhismaterialwhichwerenotcon-sciouslyinhismindwhenhebegan.Thisorganicprocess,oftenleadingtomomentsofextraordinaryself-discovery,isofanindescribablefascination.Ablurredimageappears,headdsabrushstrokeandanother,anditisgone;butsomethingwasthere,andhewillnotresttillhehascapturedit.Sometimestheyeastwithinawriteroutlivesabookhehaswritten.Ihaveheardofwriterswhoreadnothingbuttheirownbooks,likeadolescentstheystandbeforethemirror,andstillcannotfathomtheexactoutlineofthevisionbeforethem.Forthesamereason,writerstalkinterminablyabouttheirownbooks,winklingouthiddenmeanings,super-imposingnewones,beggingresponsefromthosearoundthem.Ofcourseawriterdoingthisismisunderstood:hemightaswelltrytoexplainacrimeoraloveaffair.Heisalso,incidentally,anunforgivablebore.Thistemptationtocoverthedistancebetweenhimselfandthereader,tostudyhisimageinthesightofthosewhodonotknowhim,canbehisundoing:hehasbeguntowritetoplease.AyoungEnglishwritermadethepertinentobservationayearortwobackthatthetalentgoesintothefirstdraft,andtheartintothedraftsthatfollow.Forthisreasonalsothewriter,likeanyotherartist,hasnorestingplace,nocrowdormovementinwhichhemaytakecomfort,nojudgmentfromoutsidewhichcanreplacethejudgmentfromwithin.Awritermakesorderoutoftheanarchyofhisheart;hesubmitshimselftoamoreruthlessdisciplinethananycriticdreamedof,andwhenheflirstswithfame,heistakingtimeofffromlivingwithhimself,fromthesearchforwhathisworldcontainsatitsinmostpoint.Lesson49Rocketsandartificialsatellitescangofarabovetheionosphere,andevenescapefromtheEarth.Yettheyarecomplexandexpensive,andintheirpresentstageofdevelopmenttheycannotliftmassivetelescopes,keepthemsteadywhiletheobservationsarebeingcarriedout,andthenreturnthemsafely.Balloonsaremucheasiertohandle,andarealsovastlycheaper.Theirmainlimitationisthattheyareincapableofrisingtotheionosphere.Aheightofbetween80,000and90,000feetisasmuchascanreasonablybeexpected,andsoballoon-borneinstru-mentscancontributelittletoeitherultra-violetastronomyorX-rayastronomy.Allthesame,theballoonhasmuchtobesaidinitsfavour,sinceitcanatleastcarryheavyequipmentabovemostoftheatmosphericmass--thuseliminatingblurringandunsteadinessoftheimages.Moreover,water-vapourandcarbondioxideinthelowerairabsorbmostoftheinfra-redradiationssenttousfromtheplanets.Balloonascentsovercomethishazardwithease.Hot-airballoonsdatebacktotheyear1783,andwithinafewmonthsofthefirstflightaFrenchscientist,Charles,wentuptwomilesinafreeballoon.Yetthereislittleresemblancebetweenthesecrudevehiclesandamodernscientificballoon,whichhasbynowbecomeanimportantresearchtool.ThemaindevelopmenthasbeencarriedoutbyM.SchwarlschildandhisteamatPrincetonUniversityintheUnitedStates,incollaborationwiththeUnitedStatesNavy,theNationalScienceFoundation,andtheNationalAero-nauticsandSpaceAdministration.The"Stratoscope"flightsof1959,concernedmainlywithstudiesoftheSun,wereremarkablysuccessful,andtheprojecthasnowbeenextended.WithStratoscopeII,theoverallheightfromthetelescope39 tothetopofthelaunchballoonis666feet,theballoonstogetherweighovertwotons,andanothertwotonsofballastarecarriedforlaterreleaseifheighthasbemaintainedduringthenight.Thetelescope,plusitscontrolsweighsthree-and-a-halftons.Twolargeparachutesarcalsocarried;incaseofemergency,theinstrumentsandtheirrecordscanbeseparatedfromthemainballoonsystem,andbroughtdowngently.Manyoftheradioandelectronicdevicesusedaresimilartothoseofartificialsatellites.Lesson50Inmediaevaltimesriversweretheveinsofthebodypoliticaswellaseconomic.Boundariesbetweenstatesorshires,theywerecrossedbyfordswhichbecamethesitesoftowns,orbybridgeswhichwereoftenpointsofbattle.Uponriversthepeopleofthattimedependedforfood,powerandtransport.Inourdayfisharecaughtintheseaandbroughttousbyrailandlorry;onlytheanglerstillthinksfresh-waterfishimportant,andpollutionofriversdriveshimintosmallerandsmallerreachesinwhichtopractisehissport.Butinearliertimes,whenseafishwereeatenonlybythosewholivedontheseacoast,whenmeatwasobtainableonlyforpartoftheyear,andwhenfastswerefrequentanduniversallypractised,riverfishplayedanimportantpartinthenationallife.Everyabbeyandgreatman"shousehaditsfishpond,andacrosstheriversgreatandsmallstretchedthefishweirs,usuallymadeofstakesandnetsorbasket-work.Betweentheownersofthefisheriesandthebargemasterwhoneededanunimpededpassagecontinuouswarwasfought,tilltheimportanceoffresh-waterfishlessenedasthepracticeoffastingceasedtobeuniversal,asmeatbe-cameavailablealltheyearround,andasthetransportofseafishinlandbecamepracticable.Riverswerealsothemostimportantsourceofpower.Everystreamhaditsmills,notonlyforgrindingcorn,butforalltheotherindustrialprocessesofthetime,suchasfulling*clothordrivingthehammersofironworks.Placeddownthebankwhereveraheadofwatercouldbegot,thesemillsweretobefoundonthetinystreamthatranthroughavillage,oronthebiggerriverthatwasalsousedfornavigation.Anartificialcutwasmadefromtherivertobringthewateratproperheighttothewater-wheel,and,inordertomakesureofasupplyofwateratallseasons,themill-ownerusuallybuiltaweiracrosstherivertoholdbackthewaterandsoformanartificialreservoir.Iftheriverwerenavigable,thecentreofsuchaweirwasmadeofplanksheldverticallybycrossbeamssothattheycouldberemovedwhenitwasnecessarytopassabarge,orwasfittedwithasinglepairofgates.Suchweirswerecalledstaunchesorflash-locks;theydidnotdisappearfromthebiggerriverstillpresenttimes,andmaystillbeseenintheFens.Cleansingandthickening.Lesson51Twomaintechniqueshavebeenusedfortrainingelephants,whichwemaycallrespectivelythetoughandthegentle.Theformermethodsimplyconsistsofsettinganelephanttoworkandbeatinghimuntilhedoeswhatisexpectedofhim.Apartfromanymoralconsiderationsthisisastupidmethodoftraining,foritproducesaresentfulanimalwhoatalaterstagemaywellturnman-killer.Thegentlemethodrequiresmorepatienceintheearlystages,butproducesacheer-39 ful,good-temperedelephantwhowillgivemanyyearsofloyalservice.Thefirstessentialinelephanttrainingistoassigntotheanimalasinglemahoutwhowillbeentirelyresponsibleforthejob.Elephantsliketohaveonemasterjustasdogsdo,andarecapableofaconsiderabledegreeofpersonalaffection.Thereareevenstoriesofhalf-trainedelephantcalveswhohaverefusedtofeedandpinedtodeathwhenbysomeunavoidablecircumstancetheyhavebeendeprivedoftheirowntrainer.Suchextremecasesmustprobablybetakenwithagrainofsalt,buttheydounderlinethegeneralprinciplethattherelation-shipbetweenelephantandmahoutisthekeytosuccessfultraining.Themosteconomicalagetocaptureanelephantfortrainingisbetweenfifteenandtwentyyears,foritisthenalmostreadytoundertakeheavyworkandcanbegintoearnitskeepstraightaway.Butanimalsofthisagedonoteasilybecomesubservienttoman,andaveryfirmhandmustbeemployedintheearlystages.Thecaptiveelephant,stillropedtoatree,plungesandscreamseverytimeamanapproaches,andforseveraldayswillprobablyrefuseallfoodthroughangerandfear.Sometimesatameelephantistetherednearbytogivethewildoneconfi-dence,andinmostcasesthecaptivegraduallyquietensdownandbeginstoacceptitsfood.Thenextstageistogettheelephanttothetrainingestablishment,aticklishbusinesswhichisachievedwiththeaidoftwotameelephantsropedtothecaptiveoneitherside.Whenseveralelephantsarebeingtrainedatonetimeitiscustomaryforthenewarrivaltobeplacedbetweenthestallsoftwocaptiveswhosetrainingisalreadywelladvanced.Itisthenleftcompletelyundisturbedwithplentyoffoodandwatersothatitcanabsorbtheatmosphereofitsnewhomeandseethatnothingparticularlyalarmingishappeningtoitscompanions.Whenitiseatingnormallyitsowntrainingbegins.Thetrainerstandsinfrontoftheelephantholdingalongstickwithasharpmetalpoint.Twoassistants,mountedortameelephants,controlthecaptivefromeitherside,whileothersrubtheirhandsoverhisskintotheaccompanimentofamonotonousandsoothingchant.Thisifsupposedtoinducepleasurablesensationsintheelephant,anditseffectsarerein-forcedbytheuseofendearingepithets,suchas"ho!myson",or"ho!myfather",or"mymother",accordingtotheageandsexofthecaptive.Theelephantisnotimmediatelysusceptibletosuchblandishments,however,andusuallylashesfiercelywithitstrunkinalldirections.Thesemovementsarecontrolledbythetrainerwiththemetal-pointedstick,andthetrunkeventuallybecomessosorethattheelephantcurlsitupandseldomafterwardsusesitforoffensivepurposes.Lesson52Anearthquakecomeslikeathiefinthenight,withoutwarning.Itwasnecessary,therefore,toinventinstrumentsthatneitherslumberednorslept.Somedeviceswerequitesimple.one,forinstance,consistedofrodsofvariouslengthsandthicknesseswhichwouldstanduponendlikeninepins.whenashockcameitshooktherigidtableuponwhichthesestood.Ifitweregentle,onlythemoreunstablerodsfell.Ifitweresevere,theyallfell.Thustherodsbyfalling,andbythedirectioninwhichtheyfell,recordedfortheslumberingscientistthestrengthofashockthatwastooweaktowakenhimandthedirectionfromwhichitcame.Butinstrumentsfarmoredelicatethanthatwereneededifanyreallyseriousadvancewastobemade.Theidealtobeaimedatwastodeviseaninstrument39 thatcouldrecordwithapenonpaperthemovements,ofthegroundorofthetable,asthequakepassedby.WhileIwritemypenmoves,butthepaperkeepsstill.Withpractice,nodoubt,Icouldintimelearntowritebyholdingthestillwhilethepapermoved.Thatsoundsasillysuggestion,butthatwaspreciselytheideaadoptedinsomeoftheearlyinstruments(seismometers)forrecordingearthquakewaves.Butwhentable,penholderandpaperareallmovinghowisitpossibletowritelegibly?Thekeytoasolutionofthatproblemlayinanevery-dayobservation.Whydoesapersonstandinginabusortraintendtofallwhenasuddenstartismade?Itisbecausehisfeetmoveon,buthisheadstaysstill.Asimpleexperimentwillhelpusalittlefurther.Tieaheavyweightattheendofalongpieceofstring.Withthehandheldhighintheairholdthestringssothattheweightnearlytouchestheground.Nowmovethehandtoandfroandaroundbutnotupanddown.Itwillbefoundthattheweightmovesbutslightlyornotatall.Imagineapenattachedtotheweightinsuchawaythatitspointrestsuponapieceofpaperonthefloor.Imagineanearthquakeshockshakingthefloor,thepaper,youandyourhand.Inthemidstofallthismovementtheweightandthepenwouldbestill.Butasthepapermovedfromsidetosideunderthepenpointitsmovementwouldberecordedininkuponitssurface.Itwasuponthisprin-ciplethatthefirstinstrumentsweremade,butthepaperwaswrappedroundadrumwhichrotatedslowly.Aslongasallwasstillthependrewastraightline,butwhilethedrumwasbeingshakenthelinethatthepenwasdrawingwriggledfromsidetoside.Theapparatusthusdescribed,however,recordsonlythehorizontalcomponentofthewavemovement,whichis,infact,muchmorecom-plicated.Ifwecouldactuallyseethepathdescribedbyaparticle,suchasasandgrainintherock,itwouldbemorelikethatofabluebottlebuzzingroundtheroom;itwouldbeupanddown,toandfroandfromsidetoside.Instrumentshavebeendevisedandcanhesoplacedthatallthreeelementscanberecordedindifferentgraphs.Whentheinstrumentissituatedatmorethan700milesfromtheearthquakecentre,thegraphicrecordshowsthreewavesarrivingoneaftertheotheratshortintervals.Thefirstrecordsthearrivaloflongitudinalvibrations.Thesec-ondmarksthearrivaloftransversevibrationswhichtravelmoreslowlyandarriveseveralminutesafterthefirst.Thesetwohavetravelledthroughtheearth.Itwasfromthestudyofthesethatsomuchwaslearntabouttheinterioroftheearth.Thethird,ormainwave,istheslowestandhastravelledroundtheearththroughthesurfacerocks.Lesson53TheFrenchForeignLegionwasfoundedbyaRoyalOrdinance,writtenonasmallpieceofofficialFrenchWarOfficenotepaperdatedMarch9th,1831,andsignedbythethenreigningmonarchofFrance,Louis-Philippe.Hehadbeenonthethroneforbarelyeightmonthswhenheauthorizedthismeasure,whichwasasmuchaproductofnecessityasofcarefulplanning,althoughtheremaybedividedviewsonthis.ThereasonsforformingtheFrenchForeignLegionwereprobablytwofold.InthefirstplacethemenofthedisbandedroyalbodyguardandtheRegimentofHohenlohe,suddenlyturnedlooseontothestreetofacapitalseethingwithun-rest,unemployedandperhapsdisgruntledattheirabruptdismissal,wereapo-39 tentiallydangerouselement.Theyweretrainedtotheuseofarms,andshouldtheybecometoolsofthepoliticallyambitiousordiscontentedtheywouldpresentadistinctmenacetothenewregime,notyettoofirmlyestablishedandsureofitself.ForsometimeParishadbeenswarmingwithcountlessotherdischargedforeignsoldierswhohadservedintheFrencharmyatvarioustimesundertheEmpireandtheRepublic,manyofwhomwereinneedycircumstancesandopentosuggestion,whilstotherswereopenlylookingfortroubleandalwaysreadytotakepartinanydisturbance.Itwasclearlybothexpedientanddesirabletore-movethesedangersasfarawayfromthecapitalaspossible.Next,theAlgerianadventurehadbegun,anditappearedthatthismightproveexpensiveinlives.ThemoreFrenchmenkilledinNorthAfrica,thelesspopularthegovernmentathomewouldbe,soifforeigncannonfodderwasavailablesomuchthebetter.TheAlgerianlandinghadbeenviewedwithmixedfeelingsinapoliticallydividedFrance,buttheredoesnotseemtohavebeen,anymarkedindicationonthepartofthepoliticiansthattheywereunanimousthattheoccu-pationshouldbeabruptlyterminated;mostwerewaryandmanyapprehensiveastohowtheAlgerianbusinesswouldturnout.Theformationofaforeignlegionseemedthereforetobeanidealmethodofkillingthesetwobirdswithonestone.Oncetheconditionsweremadecleartheredoesnotseemohavebeenanyseriousopposition.MarshalSoultwasreputedtobethemanbehindtheschemebothforremov-ingandusingtheunemployedforeignex-soldiers.Hecouldnothavefailedtorecognize,oncetheywereformedintodisciplinedunits,howusefultheywouldbe,bothforgarrisondutyandforactiveoperationsinAlgeria,northefactthatiftheircasualtieswereheavyortheirconditionsnotofthebest,therewouldbenoembarrassingreactionforagitationinFranceontheirbehalf.TheRoyalOrdinancedecreedthatthereshouldbealegionformedforeignersforserviceoutsideFrance,whichwastobecalledthe"ForeignLegion"anditwastobepartoftheFrencharmyandunderthecontroloftheWarMinister.Itlaiddownthatasfaraspossiblecompaniesshouldbecomposedofmenofthesamenationalityorwhospokeacommonlanguage.AlgeriawasnotspecificallymentionedbutasitwastheonlyscrapofforeignterritoryofanysizepossessedbyFranceatthatmoment,therewasnodoubtastothemeaningofthephrase"outsideFrance".Intheanxietytogetdubious,restlesscharactersoutofthecountrynoques-tionswereaskedastonationality,previousrecordorhistory,andnoproofofidentitywasrequired.Thenameandparticularsgivenbytherecruitwereacceptedatfacevalueandmanygavenomsdeguerre,*forunderstandablerea-sons.Thusthepracticebegan,andthetraditionstartedof"askingnoquestions".Thistraditionofguaranteeinganonymitybegantodevelopquickly,althoughitwasnotuntillaterthatitwascarriedtotheextremeofdenyingallknowledgeofanyindividualswhowereinitsranksandofrefusingpointblanktoanswerquestionsortoallowanyoutsidecontactwiththelegionnaires.Pseudonyms.Lesson54Wemustconcludefromtheworkofthosewhohavestudiedtheoriginoflife,39 thatgivenaplanetonlyapproximatelylikeourown,lifeisalmostcertaintostart.OfalltheplanetsinourownsolarsystemwearcnowprettycertaintheEarthistheonlyoneonwhichlifecansurvive.Marsistoodryandpoorinoxygen,Venusfartoohot,andsoisMercury,andtheouterplanetshavetem-peraturesnearabsolutezeroandhydrogen-dominatedatmospheres.Butothersuns,starsastheastronomerscallthem,areboundtohaveplanetslikeourown,andasthenumberofstarsintheuniverseissovast,thispossibilitybecomesvirtualcertainty.ThereareonehundredthousandmillionstarsinourownMilkyWayalone,andthentherearethreethousandmillionotherMilkyWays,orGalaxies,intheuniverse.Sothenumberofstarsthatweknowexistisestimatedatabout300millionmillionmillion.Althoughperhapsonly1percentofthelifethathasstartedsomewherewilldevelopintohighlycomplexandintelligentpatterns,sovastisthenumberofplanetsthatintelligentlifeisboundtobeanaturalpartoftheuniverse.Ifthenwearesocertainthatotherintelligentlifeexistsintheuniverse,whyhavewehadnovisitorsfromouterspaceyet?Firstofall,theymayhavecometothisplanetofoursthousandsormillionsofyearsago,andfoundourthenpre-vailingprimitivestatecompletelyuninterestingtotheirownadvancedknowledge.ProfessorRonaldBracewell,aleadingAmericanradio-astronomer,arguedinNaturethatsuchasuperiorcivilization,onavisittoourownsolarsystem,may-haveleftanautomaticmessengerbehindtoawaitthepossibleawakeningofanadvancedcivilization.Suchamessenger,receivingourradioandtelevisionsig-nals,mightwellre-transmitthembacktoitshome-planet,althoughwhatim-pressionanyothercivilizationwouldthusgetfromusisbestleftunsaid.Butherewecomeupagainstthemostdifficultofallobstaclestocontactwithpeopleonotherplanets--theastronomicaldistanceswhichseparateus.Asareasonableguess,theymight,onanaverage,be100lightyearsaway.(Alightyearisthedistancewhichlighttravelsat186,000milespersecondinoneyear,namely6millionmillionmiles.)Radiowavesalsotravelatthespeedoflight,andassumingsuchanautomaticmessengerpickedupourfirstbroadcastsofthe1920"s,themessagetoitshomeplanetisbarelyhalfwaythere.Similarly,ourownPresentprimitivechemicalrockets,thoughgoodenoughtoorbitmen,havenochanceoftransportingustothenearestotherstar,fourlightyearsaway,letalonedistancesoftensorhundredsoflightyears.Fortunately,thereisa"uniquelyrationalway"forustocommunicatewithotherintelligentbeings,asWalterSullivanhasputitinhisexcellentrecentbook,Wearenotalone.Thisdependsonthepreciseradio-frequencyofthe21-cmwavelength,or1420megacyclespersecond.Itisthenaturalfrequencyofemis-sionofthehydrogenatomsinspaceandwasdiscoveredbyusin1951;itmustbeknowntoanykindofradio-astronomerintheuniverse.Oncetheexistenceofthiswave-lengthhadbeendiscovered,itwasnotlongbeforeitsuseastheuniquelyrecognizablebroadcastingfrequencyforinterstellarcommunicationwassuggested.Withoutsomethingofthiskind,searchingforintelligencesonotherplanetswouldbeliketryingtomeetafriendinLondonwithoutaPre-arrangedrendezvousandabsurdlywanderingthestreetsinthehopeofachanceencounter.Lesson5539 Customhasnotbeencommonlyregardedasasubjectofanygreatmoment.Theinnerworkingsofourownbrainswefeeltobeuniquelyworthyofinvestigation,butcustomhaveawayofthinking,isbehaviouratitsmostcommonplace.Asamatteroffact,itistheotherwayaround.Traditionalcustom,takentheworldover,isamassofdetailedbehaviourmoreastonishingthanwhatanyonepersoncaneverevolveinindividualactions,nomatterhowaberrant.Yetthatisarathertrivialaspectofthematter.Thefactoffirst-rateimportanceisthepredominantrolethatcustomplaysinexperienceandinbelief,andtheverygreatvarietiesitmaymanifest.Nomaneverlooksattheworldwithpristineeyes.Heseesiteditedbyadefinitesetofcustomsandinstitutionsandwaysofthinking.Eveninhisphilo-sophicalprobingshecannotgobehindthesestereotypes;hisveryconceptsofthetrueandthefalsewillstillhavereferencetohisparticulartraditionalcus-toms.JohnDeweyhassaidinallseriousnessthatthepartplayedbycustominshapingthebehaviouroftheindividualasoveragainstanywayinwhichhecanaffecttraditionalcustom,isastheproportionofthetotalvocabularyofhismothertongueoveragainstthosewordsofhisownbabytalkthataretakenupintothevernacularofhisfamily.Whenoneseriouslystudiesthesocialordersthathavehadtheopportunitytodevelopautonomously,thefigurebecomesnomorethananexactandmatter-off-factobservation.Thelifehistoryoftheindi-vidualisfirstandforemostanaccommodationtothepatternsandstandardstraditionallyhandeddowninhiscommunity.Fromthemomentofhisbirththecustomsintowhichheisbornshapehisexperienceandbehaviour.Bythetimehecantalk,heisthelittlecreatureofhisculture,andbythetimeheisgrownandabletotakepartinitsactivities,itshabitsarehishabits,itsbeliefshisbeliefs,itsimpossibilitieshisimpossibilities.Everychildthatisbornintohisgroupwillsharethemwithhim,andnochildbornintooneontheoppositesideoftheglobecaneverachievethethousandthpart.Thereisnosocialproblemitismorein-cumbentuponustounderstandthanthisoftheroleofcustom.Untilweareintelligentastoitslawsandvarieties,themaincomplicatingfactsofhumanlifemustremainunintelligible.Thestudyofcustomcanbeprofitableonlyaftercertainpreliminarypropo-sitionshavebeenaccepted,andsomeofthesepropositionshavebeenviolentlyopposed.Inthefirstplaceanyscientificstudyrequiresthattherebenopreferen-tialweightingofoneoranotheroftheitemsintheseriesitselectsforitscon-sideration.Inallthelesscontroversialfieldslikethestudyofcactiortermitesorthenatureofnebulae,thenecessarymethodofstudyistogrouptherelevantmaterialandtotakenoteofallpossiblevariantformsandconditions.Inthiswaywehavelearnedallthatweknowofthelawsofastronomy,orofthehabitsofthesocialinsects,letussay.Itisonlyinthestudyofmanhimselfthatthemajorsocialscienceshavesubstitutedthestudyofonelocalvariation,thatofWesterncivilization.Anthropologywasbydefinitionimpossibleaslongasthesedistinctionsbe-tweenourselvesandtheprimitive,ourselvesandthebarbarian,ourselvesandthepagan,heldswayoverpeople"sminds.Itwasnecessaryfirsttoarriveatthatdegree,ofsophisticationwherewenolongersetourownbeliefoveragainstour39 neighbour"ssuperstition.Itwasnecessarytorecognizethattheseinstitutionswhicharebasedonthesamepremises,letussaythesupernatural,mustbecon-sideredtogether,ourownamongtherest.Lesson56Scienceandtechnologyhavecometopervadeeveryaspectofourlivesand,asaresult,societyischangingataspeedwhichisquiteunprecedented.Thereisagreattechnologicalexplosionaroundus,generatedbyscience.Thisexplosionisalreadyfreeingvastnumbersofpeoplefromtheirtraditionalbondagetonature,andnowatlastwehaveitinourpowertofreemankindonceandforallfromthefearwhichisbasedonwant.Now,forthefirsttime,mancanreasonablybegintothinkthatlifecanbesomethingmorethanagrimstruggleforsurvival.Buteventoday,inspiteofthehighstandardoflivingwhichhasbecomegeneralinthemorefortunateWest,themajorityofpeopleintheworldstillspendnearlyalltheirtimeandenergyinanever-endingstrugglewithnaturetosecurethefoodandsheltertheyneed.Eveninthiselementaryeffortmillionsofhumanbeingseachyeardieunnecessarilyandwastefullyfromhunger,disease,orflood.Yet,intheWest,scienceandtechnologyhavemadeitpossibleforustohaveaplentifulsupplyoffood,producedbyonlyafractionofthelabourthatwasnecessaryevenafewdecadesago.IntheUnitedStates,forinstance,onemanonthelandproducesmorethanenoughfoodtofeedfifteenmeninthecities,and,infact,thereisasurplusoffoodgrownevenbythissmallproportionoftheAmericanlabourforce.Wehaveconsiderablyextendedourexpectationoflife.Wehaveenrichedourlivesbycreatingphysicalmobilitythroughthemotor-car,thejetaeroplane,andothermeansofmechanicaltransport;andwehaveaddedtoourintellectualmobilitybythetelephone,radio,andtelevision.Notcontentwiththeseadvances,wearenowthrustingforwardtothestars,andtheconquestospacenolongerstrikesusasWellsianorJulesVernian.Andwiththeadventofthenewphaseoftechnologywecallautomation,wehavethepromisebothofgreaterleisureandofevengreatermaterialandintellectualriches.Butthisisnotinevitable.Itdependsonautomationbeingadequatelyex-ploited.Weshallneedtoapplyourscientificandtechnologicalresourcestoliterallyeveryaspectofoursociety,toourcommerce,ourindustry,ourmedicine,ouragriculture,ourtransportation.Itisfascinatingandencouragingtoobservethedevelopmentofthisimmenseprocess,aprocessinwhichmanappearsallthetimetobeengagedintheactofcreatinganextensionofhimself.Inhisnewtechnologicalsuccessesthisappearsparticularlytrue.Heisextendinghiseyeswithradar;histongueandhisearthroughtelecommunication;hismuscleandbodystructurethroughmechaniza-tion.Heextendshisownenergiesbythegenerationandtransmissionofpowerandhisnervoussystemandhisthinkinganddecision-makingfacultiesthroughautomation.Ifthisobservationisaccurate,asIbelieveitis,theimplicationsarefar-reaching.Itmightbereasonabletoconcludethatthedirectionofmodernscienceandtechnologyistowardsthecreationofaseriesofmachine-systemsbasedonmanasamodel.Lesson57Inman"searlydays,competitionwithothercreaturesmusthavebeencritical.Butthisphaseofourdevelopmentisnowfinished.Indeed,welackpracticeand39 experiencenowadaysindealingwithprimitiveconditions.Iamsurethat,with-outmodernweapons,Iwouldmakeaverypoorshowofdisputingtheownershipofacavewithabear,andinthisIdonotthinkthatIstandalone.Thelastcreaturetocompetewithmanwasthemosquito.Buteventhemosquitohasbeensubduedbyattentiontodrainageandbychemicalsprays.Competitionbetweenourselves,personagainstperson,communityagainstcommunity,stillpersists,however;anditisasfierceasiteverwas.Butthecompetitionofmanagainstmanisnotthesimpleprocessenvisionedinbiology.Itisnotasimplecompetitionforafixedamountoffooddeterminedbythephysicalenvironment,becausetheenvironmentthatdeterminesourevo-lutionisnolongeressentiallyphysical.Ourenvironmentischieflyconditionedbythethingswebelieve.MoroccoandCaliforniaarebitsoftheEarthinverysimilarlatitudes,bothonthewestcoastsofcontinentswithsimilarclimates,andprobablywithrathersimilarnaturalresources.Yettheirpresentdevelopmentiswhollydifferent,notsomuchbecauseofdifferentpeopleeven,butbecauseofthedifferentthoughtsthatexistinthemindsoftheirinhabitants.ThisisthepointIwishtoemphasize.Themostimportantfactorinourenvironmentisthestateofourownminds.Itiswellknownthatwherethewhitemanhasinvadedaprimitiveculturethemostdestructiveeffectshavecomenotfromphysicalweaponsbutfromideas.Ideasaredangerous.TheHolyofficeknewthisfullwellwhenitcausedhereticstobeburnedindaysgoneby.Indeed,theconceptoffreespeechonlyexistsinourmodemsocietybecausewhenyouareinsideacommunityyouarecondi-tionedbytheconventionsofthecommunitytosuchadegreethatitisverydifficulttoconceiveofanythingreallydestructive.Itisonlysomeonelookingonfromoutsidethatcaninjectthedangerousthoughts.Idonotdoubtthatitwouldbepossibletoinjectideasintothemodernworldthatwouldutterlydestroyus.Iwouldliketogiveyouanexample,butfortunatelyIcannotdoso.Perhapsitwillsufficetomentionthenuclearbomb.Imaginetheeffectonareasonablyad-vancedtechnologicalsociety,onethatstilldoesnotpossessthebomb,ofmakingitawareofthepossibility,ofsupplyingsufficientdetailstoenablethethingtobeconstructed.Twentyorthirtypagesofinformationhandedtoanyofthemajorworldpowersaroundtheyear1925wouldhavebeensufficienttochangethecourseofworldhistory.Itisastrangethought,butIbelieveacorrectone,thattwentyorthirtypagesofideasandinformationwouldbecapableofturningthepresent-dayworldupsidedown,orevendestroyingit.Ihaveoftentriedtocon-ceiveofwhatthosepagesmightcontain,butofcourseIcannotdosobecauseIamaprisonerofthepresent-dayworld,justasallofyouare.Wecannotthinkoutsidetheparticularpatternsthatourbrainsareconditionedto,or,tobemoreaccurate,wecanthinkonlyaverylittlewayoutside,andthenonlyifweareveryoriginal.Lesson58AgiftedAmericanpsychologisthassaid,"Worryisaspasmoftheemotion;themindcatchesholdofsomethingandwillnotletitgo."Itisuselesstoarguewiththemindinthiscondition.Thestrongerthewill,themorefutilethetask.Onecanonlygentlyinsinuatesomethingelseintoitsconvulsivegrasp.Andifthissomethingelseisrightlychosen,ifitisreallyattendedbytheilluminationofan-39 otherfieldofinterest,gradually,andoftenquiteswiftly,theoldunduegriprelaxesandtheprocessofrecuperationandrepairbegins.Thecultivationofahobbyandnewformsofinterestisthereforeapolicyoffirstimportancetoapublicman.Butthisisnotabusinessthatcanbeunder-takeninadayorswiftlyimprovisedbyamerecommandofthewill.Thegrowthofalternativementalinterestsisalongprocess.Theseedsmustbecarefullychosen;theymustfallongoodground;theymustbesedulouslytended,ifthevivifyingfruitsaretobeathandwhenneeded.Tobereallyhappyandreallysafe,oneoughttohaveatleasttwoorthreehobbies,andtheymustallbereal.Itisnousestartinglateinlifetosay:"Iwilltakeaninterestinthisorthat."Suchanattemptonlyaggravatesthestrainofmentaleffort.Amanmayacquiregreatknowledgeoftopicsunconnectedwithhisdailywork,andyethardlygetanybenefitorrelief.Itisnousedoingwhatyoulike,youhavegottolikewhatyoudo.Broadlyspeaking,humanbeingsmaybedividedintothreeclasses:thosewhoaretoiledtodeath,thosewhoareworriedtodeath,andthosewhoareboredtodeath.Itisnouseofferingthemanuallabourer,tiredoutwithahardweek"ssweatandeffort,thechanceofplayingagameoffootballorbaseballonSaturdayafternoon.Itisnouseinvitingthepoli-ticianortheprofessionalorbusinessman,whohasbeenworkingorworryingaboutseriousthingsforsixdays,toworkorworryabouttriflingthingsattheweek-end.Asfortheunfortunatepeoplewhocancommandeverythingtheywant,whocangratifyeverycapriceandlaytheirhandsonalmosteveryobjectofdesire-forthemanewpleasure,anewexcitementisonlyanadditionalsatiation.Invaintheyrushfranticallyroundfromplacetoplace,tryingtoescapefromaveng-ingboredombymereclatterandmotion.Forthemdisciplineinoneformoranotheristhemosthopefulpath.Itmayalsobesaidthatrational,industrious,usefulhumanbeingsaredividedintotwoclasses:first,thosewhoseworkisworkandwhosepleasureispleasure;andsecondly,thosewhoseworkandpleasureareone.Ofthesetheformerarethemajority.Theyhavetheircompensations.Thelonghoursintheofficeorthefactorybringwiththemastheirreward,notonlythemeansofsustenance,butakeenappetiteforpleasureeveninitssimplestandmostmodestforms.Butfortune"sfavouredchildrenbelongtothesecondclass.Theirlifeisanaturalharmony.Forthemtheworkinghoursareneverlongenough.Eachdayisaholiday,andordinaryholidayswhentheycomearegrudgedasenforcedinter-ruptionsinanabsorbingvocation.Yettobothclassestheneedofanalternativeoutlook,ofachangeofatmosphere,ofadiversionofeffort,isessential.Indeed,itmaywellbethatthosewhoseworkistheirpleasurearethosewhomostneedthemeansofbanishingitatintervalsfromtheirmiLesson59economyisonepowerfulmotiveforcamping,sinceaftertheinitialoutlayuponequipment,orthroughhiringit,thetotalexpensecanbefarlessthanthecostofhotels.But,contrarytoapopularassumption,itisfarfrombeingtheonlyone,oreventhegreatest.ThemanwhomanoeuvrescarelesslyintohisfiveshillingsworthofspaceatoneofEurope"smyriadpermanentsitesmayfindhimselfbumpingaBentley.Morelikely,FordConsulwillbehubtohubwithRenault39 orMercedes,butrarelywithbicyclesmadefortwo.Thattheequipmentofmoderncampingbecomesyearlymoresophisticatedisanentertainingparadoxforthecynic,abrighterpromiseforthehopefultravellerwhohassworntogetawayfromitall.Italsoprovides--andsomestudentsociolo-gistmightcaretobasehisthesisuponthephenomenon--anescapeofanotherkind.ThemoderntravellerisoftenamanwhodislikestheSplendideandtheBellavista,notbecausehecannotafford,orshuns,theirmeterialcomforts,butbecauseheisafraidofthem.Affluenthemaybe,butheisbynomeanssurewhat,totipthedoormanorthechambermaid.Masterinhisownhouse,hehaslittleideaofwhentosaybootoamaitred"hotel.*Fromallsuchfearscampingreleaseshim.Granted,asnobberyofcampingitself,baseduponequipmentandtechniques,alreadyexists,butitisofakindthat,ifhemeetsit,hecanreadilyunderstandanddealwith.Thereisnosuperior"they"intheshapeofmanagementsandhotelhierarchiestodarkenhisholidaydays.Tosuchmotives,yetanothermustbeadded.Thecontemporaryphenomenonofmotor-carworshipistobeexplainednotleastbythesenseofindependenceandfreedomthatownershipentails.Tothispleasurecampinggivesanexquisiterefinement.Fromone"sownfrontdoortohomeorforeignhillsorsandsandbackagain,everythingistohand.Notonlyarethemeansofarrivingattheholidayparadiseentirelywithinone"sowncommandandkeeping,butthemeansofescapefromholidayhell(ifthebeachprovestoocrowded,thelocalweathertooinclement)arethere,outside--or,aslikely,partof--thetent.Idealistshaveobjectedtothepracticeofcamping,astothepackagedtour,thatthetravellerabroadtherebydenieshimselftheopportunityofgettingtoknowthepeopleofthecountryvisited.Insularityandself-containment,itisargued,gohandinhand.TheopiniondoesnotsurviveexperienceofapopularContinentalcampingplace.Holidayhotelstendtocaterforonenationalityofvisitorsespecially,sometimesexclusively.Campingsites,bycontrast,arehighlycosmopolitan.Granted,apreponderanceofGermansisacharacteristicthat.seemscommontomostMediterraneansites;butasyetthereisnooverwhelm-inglyspecializedpatronage.Noticesforbiddingtheopen-airdryingofclothes,ortheuseofwaterpointsforcarwashing,orthoseinviting"ourcampingfriends"toadanceoraboattripareprintednotonlyinFrenchorItalianorSpanish,butalsoinEnglish,GermanandDutch.Atmealtimestheodourofsauerkrautvieswiththatofgarlic.TheFrenchman"sbreakfastcoffeecompeteswiththeEnglishman"sbaconandeggs.Whethertheremarkablegrowthoforganizedcampingmeanstheeventualdeathofthemoreindependentkindishardtosay.Municipalitiesnaturallywanttosecurethecampers"sitefeesandothercustom.Policearewaryofitinerantswhocannotbetracedtoarecognizedcampboundaryortofourwalls.Butmostprobablyitwillalldependuponcampersthemselves:howmanyheathfirestheycause,howmuchlittertheyleave,inshort,whetherornottheywhollyalienatelandownersandthosewholiveinthecountryside.OnlygoodscoutingislikelytopreservethefreedomssodeartotheheartoftheeternalBoyScout.Lesson6039 Althoughtruthandjusticemaybethemostpowerfulimpulsestoshowmoralcourage,thereareothers.Compassionisoneofthese.Tentativelyitcanbesug-gestedthatthisisthemaininfluenceuponthosewhourgetheabolitionofcapitalpunishment.Itisrecognitionofcompassion"spartthatleadstheupholdersofcapitalpunishmenttoaccusetheabolitionistsofsentimentalityinbeingmoresorryforthemurdererthanforhisvictim.ThisisnonsensebutwithitsomeorgansofthepopularPressplayedupontheemotionsoftheirreaderssosuccess-fullythatmanycandidatesforParliamentwereafraidtosupportabolitionforfearoflosingvotesandtheresultwasthemuddle-headedHomicideActof1957whichmademurderwithrobberyacapitalcrimeandallowedthepoisonertoescapethegallows.Thatillogicalqualificationshowshowflimsyistheargumentthatcapitalpunishmentisadeterrenttomurder.Thepoisoneralwaysworksonacalculatedplanofactionandthereforeisabletoconsiderwhetherornothistakinganother"slifeisworththeriskofhisown;theviolentthiefisusuallyatthemercyofaninstantemotion.Theonlyarguablepleaforcapitalpunishmentistherightofsocietytoretributioninthisworldwiththeprospectoflifeinanother,butsincewhatusedtoseemtothegreatmajorityofcivilizedhumanitytheassuranceofanotherlifebeyondthegravehascometoseemtomoreandmorepeoplelesscertain,afeelingforthevalueofhumanlifehasbecomedeeperandmorewidespread.Thismayseemaparadoxicalclaimtomakeatatimewhenmankindissomuchpreoccupiedwithweaponsofdestruction.Nevertheless,itisaclaimthatcanbesustainedandifcompassionanimatesthosewhourgetheabolitionofthedeathpenaltyitisnotasentimentalcompassionforthementalagonyinflicteduponacondemnedmanbutadreadofdestroyingthemiracleoflife.Whenintheeighteenthcenturyoffencesagainstthelawthattodaywouldnoearnamonthinprisonwerepunishedwiththedeathpenalty,theseverityofthepenalcodehadnoseriouseffectontheprevalenceofcrime.Whenitmadenodifferencetothefateofahighwaymanwhetherhehadkilledhisvictimormerelyrobbedhimofafewpiecesofsilver,therewerenomoremurdersthenthantherewerewhenmenlikeSirFraricisBurdettsucceededinlighteningtheexcessiveseverityofthepenallaws.Inthosedaysthesacrednessoflifeonearthwasnotgreatlyregardedbecausealifeintheworldtocomewastakenforgrantedexceptbyacomparativelysmallminotityofphilosophers.Norwasthelong-drawnordealofthecondemnedcellinflictedeitheruponthecondemnedmanorhisgaolersonceuponatime.Thosewhobelieveincapitalpunishmentmayhaveargumentsforitsretention,butsurelynoreasonableargumentcanbefoundforretentionofthesickeningmumbo-jumbothataccom-paniesitfromthemomentthatthejudgedonstheblackcapwithwhatlookslikeapen-wiperbalancedonthetopofhiswig,tothereadingoftheburialserviceoverthecondemnedmanbeforeheisdead.Moreover,itwasmoremercifultolaunchthecondemnedmanintoeternitytwenty-fourhoursafterhewassen-tencedthantokeephimshiveringonthebrinkofthatdreadgulffornearlythreeweeks.Hangingisanatrociouslyarchaicwayofkillingahumanbeingandtheself-satisfiedmodernityoftheelectricchairisjustasatrocious.Theadministra-tionofastrongsleepingdraughttothecondemnedmaneverynightfromwhichonenighthedoeshotawake,seemsamorecivilizedalternativetoourpresent39 barbarousprocedure,ifcapitalpunishmentthroughtheinfluenceofbackwardmindsberetained.39