交际法教学在我国高职英语语法教学中的应用 81页

山东师范大学硕士学位论文交际法教学在我国高职英语语法教学中的应用姓名：孙晓燕申请学位级别：硕士专业：英语语言文学指导教师：肖龙福20091208 山东师范大学硕士学位论文摘要传统观念强调语法知识为英语教学中最重要的因素，以至把知识教学作为英语教学目的，而完全忽视了学生能力的培养。随着语言学、心理学和教育学的发展，人们对外语教学有了新的认识，语法的定义也赋予了新的涵义。这种新观念并不把语言仅仅解释为一种知识体系或规则，而更加强调语言作为交际工具的本质意义。从而必然要求对传统的语法教学进行改革，提倡运用交际法教学。论文通过理论研究和实证调查对语法教学的地位和作用进行重新审视；回顾了交际法出现之前在外语教学界影响较大的三种教学法，包括语法翻译法、直接法、听说法；重点介绍了交际教学法的相关理论。通过对上述外语教学法的论述，读者可以窥见语法教学的大致发展历史，从而对当代的外语语法教学起到借鉴的作用。另外，本文还通过一个实验来测试交际教学能否和语法教学整合，对交际法语法教学和传统的语法教学进行了对比，研究和探讨了在英语语法教学中运用交际法能否收到效果，交际法模式下的语法教学效果是否优于传统模式下的语法教学效果。作者对实验班和控制班进行了前测和后测，在为期四个月的教学实验中对控制班实行传统的语法教学，实验班则采用交际法。文章还就实验结果对两种教学法在课堂上所反映出来的主要差异以及对我们教学的启示做了分析和归纳。研究结果表明运用交际教学方法来处理语言形式教学，不仅可以直接训练学生的交际能力，而且还能够弥补传统语法教学的缺陷。关键词：语法教学，交际法，交际能力，语言能力 山东师范大学硕士学位论文AbstractGrammaticalknowledgeistraditionalviewedasthemostimportantSOthatformalinstructionismadethegoalofEnglishlanguageteachingandtheabilityofusingthelanguageistotallyneglected．Withthedevelopmentoflinguistics，psychologyandpedagogy,peoplearetakinganewlookatf．ord鲈languageteaching，andgrammarisalsoendowedwithanewmeaning，whichreflectsonanewlinguisticconception．Thisnewconceptionregardslanguagenotmerelyasasystemofrules，butatoolforhumancommunication．Andaccordingly,thetraditionalmethodsofteachinggrammarshouldbereformedandtheCommunicativeApproachisadvocated．Throughtheoreticalanalysisandstudy,thethesismakesabriefoverviewonthreetypicaltraditionalmethodsinforei伊languageteaching,includingGrammar-TranslationMethod，DirectMethodandAudio-LingualMethod．ItalsofocusesonrelevanttheoriesaboutCommunicativeApproach．Fromtheseapproaches，weareabletohaveageneralunderstandingofthedevelopmentofgrammarteaching,whichishelpfulandvaluableforthepresentgrammarteaching．Inaddition，anexperimentWaSconductedtotestwhetherCommunicativeApproachcanbeintegratedtogrammarteaching．Thepre—testandpost-testwereconductedtoboththeExperimentalClassandtheControlClass．Duringthefour-monthexperiment，theControlClasswastaughtintraditionalgrammarteachingmethod；however,theExperimentalClasswastreatedwithCommunicativeApproach．ResultsfromtheexperimentindicatethatteachinggrammarincommunicativeinstructionCanimproveboththestudents’communicativecompetenceandtheirlinguisticknowledgemoreeffectivelythanthatintraditionalmethods．KeyWords：grammarteaching,CommunicativeApproach,communicativecompetence,linguisticcompetence 独创声明本人声明所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。据我所知，除了文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，论文中不包含其他人已经发表或撰写过的研究成果，也不包含为获得——(注：如没有其他需要特别声明的，本栏可空)或其他教育机构的学位或证书使用过的材料。与我一同工作的同志对本研究所做的任何贡献均已在论文中作了明确的说明并表示谢意。学位论文作者签名：孙晚袭，导师签字：学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解堂撞有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，有权保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和磁盘，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权』刳童．可以将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文。(保密的学位论文在解密后适用本授权书)学位论文作者签名：纵眩燕签字日期：200甲年12月夕日导师签字：签字日期：200j)年肛月夕日 山东师范大学硕士学位论文IntroductionFordecades，EnglishlanguageteachinginChinahasbeengreatlyinfluencedbysometraditionalteachingmethods，suchasGrammar-TranslationMethod，theDirectMethod，andAudio-LingualMethod．TheCommunicativeLanguageTeachingorCommunicativeApproachWasintroducedintooarcountryinthelate1970s．Fosteringthecommunicativecompetenceisitscentralgoal．Communicativecompetenceisconcernednotonlywithwhatisgrammaticalbutwhatisappropriateinagivensocialsituation．D．Hymes(1972)proposesthatlanguageshouldbetaughtincommunicativesituationsinorderforlearnerstoachievecommunicativecompetence．Learnersshouldnotonlybeequippedwithlanguageknowledge,butalsobecapableofappropriatelyusingtheforeignlanguageinvarioussituations．However,ithasbeengraduallyassumedamongthescholarsandteachersinChinathatcommunicativecompetencemakestheultimateobjectiveofEnglishLanguageteaching,andCommunicativeApproach，ifcompletelyandwellconceived，doesnotinvolvetherejectionofgrammar．Onthecontrary,itinvolvesarecognitionofitscentralmediatingroleintheuseandleamingoflanguage(Widdowson，1978)．WhatEnglishlanguageteachinginChinacountsistomakeagoodnegotiationbetweenthetraditionalandmodernteachingmethod；tomakeaproperconceptionofcommunicativecompetenceanddevelopaflexiblecommunicativewaytoformalinstructioninclassroom．Whatiscalledgrammaticalcompetencehasbeenregardedasasignificantcomponentoflearner’Scommunicativecompetencebymanylinguists(Littlewood，1990；Hammer,1983；Stem，1992)．Inaddition,theups—and-downsofELTinChinainrecentdecadeshasgivenusreflectionOilit．ManyChinesescholarsandexpertshavediscussedandconfirmedthepossibilitiesofthecombinationofthetraditionalapproachandcommunicativeapproachandthereisagrowingcomebackoftheroleofgrammaticalinstructioninclassroom．Based011thenotionofcommunicativecompetenceandthesignificantroleofgrammarteachinginELTinChina,thisthesisattemptstoexploreapossiblecommunicativewaytogrammarteaching,allowinglearnerstolearngrammarforcommunication．Thisthesisconsistsoffourchapters，togetherwithintroductionandconclusion．Theintroductionstatesthebackgroundandtheobjectiveofthethesis，andoutlinesthegeneralstructureofthesis．Chapter1describespresentsituationofgrammarteachinginEnglishclassesathomeandabroad，andpresentsgrammarteachinginCommunicativeApproachismore 山东师范大学硕士学位论文suitableforcollegestudentstocommunicatewithothersfreely．Chapter2introducesthedefinitions，features，andprinciplesofCLTandgrammarteaching，anddiscussestherelationshipsamongcommunicativecompetence，linguisticcompetenceandgrammaticalcompetence．Chapter3，themajorpartofthethesis，isanexperimentcarriedouttotestwhetherteachinggrammarintheframeworkofCLTisadaptabletocollegestudents，andwhetherteachinggrammarintheframeworkofCLTismoreeffectivethanteachinggrammarwithtraditionalmethods．Chapter4discussesabouthowtoteachgrammarunderCLT，andputsforwardtosomefeasiblewaysforteacherstoteachgrammar．Intheconclusionpart，thoughtheauthorofthethesisadvocatesteachinggrammarintheframeworkofCLT，teachersshouldadoptasuitablemethodconsideringtheirstudentsandteachingsituations．2 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter1LiteratureReview1．1GrammarTeachinginLanguageClassesAbroadAsweknow，grammarteachingisamatterofcontinuingargument．Ingeneral，itspositioninEnglishteachingchangesfromdominationtoauxiliary．InthehistoryofEnglishteaching,thereoccurmanyteachingmethodsorapproaches，suchasGrammar-TranslationMethod，Audio—LingualMethod，DirectMethod，andCommunicativeTeachingApproachandSOon．TheyplayedtheimportantroleinEnglishteachingindifferenthistoricalperiods．Amongthoseteachingmethods，thefirstthreemethodsarecalledTraditionalMethods．Thefollowingisabriefoutlineofvariouslanguage-teachingmethodsthathavebeenusedduringthe20thcentury．Itishopedthatbytalkingaboutthespecialfeaturesofeach,comparisonandcontrastwith0nlel"methods、丽llbeeasier．1．1．1TraditionalMethodsinGrammarTeaching弋rammar-TranslationMethodInthemiddleages，LatinwasacompulsorycourseinschoolsinEurope，wherestudentslearnedLatinbyIeamingandpracticingitsgrammaticalrulesandwordvariations．TranslationWasthenthemajorwayoflearningLatin．ThismethodofteachingLatin,whichiscalledtheGrammar-TranslationMethodinthehistoryofforeignlanguageteaching,dominatedf．orei印languageteachingallthetime．AccordingtoGrammar-TranslationMethod，afundamentalpurposeoflearningafbrd印languageistobeabletoreadLiteraturewritteninthetargetlanguage。Inordertorealizethepurpose，thestudentsonlyneedtoknowaboutthegrammarrulesandvocabularyofthetargetlanguage．Readingandwritingaleessentialskillsforstudentstomaster,whereaslessattentionispaidtospeakingandlistening．SothefocusofGrammarTeachingisongrammaticalrules，memorizationofvocabularyandofvariousdeclensionsandconjugations，translationoftexts，andondoingwrittenexercises．Itsfeaturesaregivenbelow：thefocusofattentionisonreadingandwriting；theemphasisisonmeticulousstandardsofaccuracy；classroomlanguageisboththetargetlanguageandthemotherlanguage；grammarrulesareemphasizedandmemorized；thesentenceisthebasicunitofteaching；grammaristaughtdeductively；itisteacher-centered．3 山东师范大学硕士学位论文GrammarTeachinghasbeenpopularforyears．It“meantatediousexperienceofmemorizingendlesslistsofunusablegrammarrulesandvocabularyandattemptingtoproduceperfecttranslationsofstiltedorliteraryprose"’．(RichardsandRodgers，1986)·----—。DirectMethodTowardthemid-nineteenthcenturyseveralfactorscontributedtoaquestioningandrejectionoftheGrammar·TranslationMethod．GrowingopportunitiesforcommunicationamongEuropeanscreatedagreatdemandfororalproficiencyinforeignlanguages．Aconsiderablenumberoflinguistsmadeattemptstobuildamethodologyinthelightofobservationofchildlanguagelearningandturnedtheirattentiontonaturalisticprinciplesoflanguagelearning．Itsfeaturesaregivenbelow：lessonsbeginwithashortstoryordialogueinthetargetlanguage．andinmodernconversationalstyle；thematerialisfirstpresentedorally、析thactionsorpictures；themothertongueisneverused；thepreferredtypeofexerciseisaseriesofquestionsinthetargetlanguagebasedonthestoryordialogue，andansweredinthetargetlanguage；grammaristaughtinductively,rulegeneralizationcomesonlyafterpractice；verbsareusedfirst，andsystematicallyconjugatedmuchlater,advancedstudentsreadliteratureforcomprehensionandpleasure；literarytextsarenotanalyzedgrammatically,thecultureassociatedwiththetargetlanguageisalsotaughtinductively．-Audio-LingualMethodTheAudio—LingualMethod(ALM)resultedfromtheincreasedattentiongiventoforeignlanguageteachingintheUnitedStatestowardtheendofthe1950s．Theoretically,thismethodisbasedonstructurallinguisticsandbehaviorismpsychology．Structurallinguisticsviewslanguageasaformandconsistsoftwolevels：grammarandlexis．Behaviorismpsychologyholdsthatlanguagelearninginvolveshabitformation．HabitsareformedwhenlearnersrespondtostimuliintheenvironmentandsubsequentlyhavetheirresponsesreinforcedSOthattheyareremembered．Inotherwords，astudentcanacquireaforeignlanguageonlybypracticingituntilheorsheformsthehabitofusingit．ThemainpointofALMisonthegrammaticalstructuresofalanguage．Languageskillsandsyntacticstructuresaresequencedinthesyllabusasawholeandevensometimesineveryteachingunit，asiflanguagelearningislargelyamatterofacquiringseparateskillsand4 山东师范大学硕士学位论文discoveringdegreesofdifficultyinsyntacticstructures．ALMalsolaysgreateremphasisonlisteningandspeakingofthetargetlanguagethanonreadingandwriting．Itadvocatesauraltrainingfirst，thenpronunciationtraining，followedbyspeaking，readingandwriting．Itsfeaturesaregivenbelow：languagelearningishabitformation；languageperformanceconsistsoffourbasicskills：listening，speaking,readingandwriting；secondlanguagelearning，likeLIlearning，shouldbeginwithlisteningandspeaking,regardlessoftheendgoalofthelearner；,acontrastiveanalysisofthephonologicalandthestructuraldifferencesbetweenL1andL2providesthemosteffectivebasisformaterialsdevelopmentandsequence；thebasicunitofpracticeshouldalwaysbeacompletestructure；theteacheristhecenterofallclassroomactivities．Audio-LingualMethod，whichhadreacheditsperiodofmostwidespreaduseinthe1960s，anyhow,declinedandthewholeaudio-lingualparadigmwasunderquestion：patternpractice，drilling,memorizationmightleadtolanguagelikebehavior,butnl叫wouldnotresultincompetence，thatis，thepracticalresultsfellshortofexpectation．StudentswereoftenfoundtobeunabletotransferskillsacquiredthroughAudio-Lingualtorealcommunicationoutsideoftheclassroom，andmanyfoundtheexperienceofstudyingthroughthismethodtobeboringandunsatisfying．叫CriticalAnalysisofTraditionalMethodsTraditionalmethodsholdthatgrammaris"Lmportantandcentraltotheteachingandlearningoflanguages．Bothteachersandstudentshavelonglearnedgrarllnlarsinthetraditionalmethods．Traditionalmethodsaimatgrammaticalrules，memorizationofvocabulary,translationoftextsandtransmissionoflinguisticknowledgethroughthemothertongue．Thoughsometraditionalmethodsdonotclaimthatmeyteachgrammar,actually,theydonotignoregrammarteachingfromwhattheyhaveactuallydone．Thedifferenceisthewayinwhichtheydealwithgrammar．TheDirectMethodinsistsontheuseoftargetlanguageinexplaininggrammarrulesbyreasoning，andittendstomovefromexamplestogeneralizationratherthanfromthememorizationofprinciplestotheapplication．TheAudio-LingualMethodemphasizesintenseoraldrills．Allofthesemethodsinvolveovertgrammarteaching．1．1．2CommunicativeApproachinGrammarTeaching5 山东师范大学硕士学位论文TheoriginsofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)aretobefoundinthechangesintheBritishlanguageteachingtraditiondatingfromthelate1960s．Untilthen，SituationalLanguageTeachingrepresentedthemajorBritishapproachtoteachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage．InSituationalLanguageTeaching，languageWastaughtbypracticingbasicstructuresinmeaningfulsituation—basedactivities．ButjustasthelinguistictheoryunderlyingAudio—lingualismWasrejectedintheUnitedStatesinthemid一1960s，BritishappliedlinguistsbegantocallintoquestionthetheoreticalassumptionsunderlyingSituationalLanguageTeaching．1heyemphasizedthefundamentaldimensionoflanguagethatWasinadequatelyaddressedincurrentapproachestolanguageteachingatthattimemthefunctionalandcommunicativepotentialoflanguage．T11eysawtheneedtofocusinlanguageteachingoncommunicativeproficiencyratherthanonmeremasteryofstructures．AnotherimpetusfordifferentapproachestoforeignlanguageteachingC翘TIefromchangingeducationalrealitiesinEurope．WiththeincreasinginterdependenceofEuropeancountriesCalTletheneedforgreatereffortstoteachadultsthemajorlanguagesoftheEuropeanCommonMarketandtheCouncilofEurope，aregionalorganizationforculturalandeducationalcooperation．EducationwasoneoftheCouncilofEurope’Smajorareasofactivity．Itsponsoredinternationalconferencesonlanguageteaching,publishedmonographsandbooksaboutlanguageteaching,andWasactiveinpromotingtheformationoftheInternationalAssociationofAppliedLinguistics．TheneedtoarticulateanddevelopalternativemethodsoflanguageteachingWasconsideredahi曲priority．、In1971agroupofexpertsbegantoinvestigatethepossibilityofdevelopinglanguagecoursesonaunit—creditsystem，asysteminwhichlearningtasksarebrokendowninto‘"portionsorunits，eachofwhichcorrespondstoacomponentofalearner’Sneedsandissystematicallyrelatedtoalltheotherportions”(VanEkandAlexander，1980：6)．ThegroupusedstudiesoftheneedsofEuropeanlanguagelearners，andinparticularapreliminarydocumentpreparedbyaBritishlinguist，D．A．Wilkins(1972)，whichproposedafunctionalorcommunicativedefinitionoflanguagethatcouldserveasabasisfordevelopingcommunicativesyllabusesforlanguageteaching．Wilkins’ScontributionWasallanalysisofthecommunicativemeaningsthatalanguagelearnerneedstounderstandandexpress．Ratherthandescribethecoreoflanguagethroughtraditionalconceptsofgrammarandvocabulary，Wilkinsattemptedtodemonstratethesystems6 山东师范大学硕士学位论文ofmeaningsthatlaybehindthecommunicativeusesoflanguage．Hedescribedtwotypesofmeanings：notionalcategoriesandcategoriesofcommunicativefunction．Wilkinslaterreviewedandexpandedhis1972documentintoabookcalledNotionalSyllabuses(Wilkins，1976)，whichhadasignificantimpactonthedevelopmentoftheCommunicativeApproach．TheCouncilofEuropeincorporatedhissemanticcommunicativeanalysisintoasetofspecificationforafirst—levelcommunicativelanguagesyllabus．TheworkoftheCouncilofEurope；thewritingsofWilkins，Widdowson，Candlin,Christophel"Brumfit,KeithJohnson,andotherBritishappliedlinguistsonthetheoreticalbasisforacommunicativeorfunctionalapproachtolanguageteaching；therapidapplicationoftheseideasbytextbookwriters；andtheequallyrapidacceptanceofthesenewprinciplesbyBritishlanguageteachingspecialists，curriculumdevelopmentcenters，andevengovernmentsgaveprominencenationallyandinternationallytowhatcanletobereferredtoastheCommunicativeApproach．AlthoughthemovementbeganasalargelyBritishinnovation,sincethemid-1970sthescopeofCommunicativeApproachhasexpandedwidely．DoesCLTexcludegrammarteaching?Theanswerisno．Asweknow，inlearninganL2grammar,studentsfaceadilemma．Ononehand，studentsneedtoknowtherules，asthatiswhattheyaretestedonatschools．Ontheotherhand，withanumberofforeignvisitors，orlivinginanL2countrythereisagoodneedforcommunicationinallL2．Thefactthatasentencemightbeappropriateinaparticularcontextbyvirtueofitsformbutstillnotbeappropriateinfunctioninaparticularsituationandlearnersfindthemselvesatalosswhenmeyareconfrontedwithactualinstanceofusealthoughtheyhaveacquiredagooddealofknowledgeoftheusageofaparticularlanguageform，showsthattheteachingofusagedoesnotappeartoguaranteeaknowledgeofuse．Clearly,thelanguagelearnerhastoacquireknowledgeofthesystemofthelanguageheislearning：hecannothopetocommunicatewithoutacode．Buttopresentitinisolationisinsomedegreetomisrepresentitsinceinactuallanguagebehaviorthesystemisnotsimplymanifestedbutisrealizedasmeaningfulcommunicativeactivity(Widdowson，1979：76)．Soweshouldlookatthewaysofcombiningformandmeaninginteachingforeignlanguages．Form—basedapproachesfocusonthelinguisticandgrammaticalstructures，whichmakethespeechgrammaticallyaccurate．Butthisaccuracyisobservedinpreparedspeechonly，andstudentslacktheabilitytoproducespontaneousspeech．SpadaandLightbown7 山东师范大学硕士学位论文(1993：205-224)havealsoarguedthatformfocusedinstructionandcorrectivefeedbackprovidedwithinthecontextofcommunicativeinteractioncallcontributepositivelytosecondlanguagedevelopmentinboththeshortandlongterm．DianeLarsen—Freeman(1993"133)says，“wehavecometorealizethatgrammaticalstructuresaremorethanforms；therefore，theiracquisitionmustentailmorethanlearninghowtoformthestructures．Itmustalsoincludelearningwhattheymeanandwhenandwhytousethemaswell．Thisawarenessisextremelyimportantfromapedagogicalstandpoint，ofcourse，becauseaslanguageteacherswillattest,themeaningchallengeforstudentsisnotaccuracyalonebutmeaningfulandappropriateuseaswell．Assuch,grammarteachingdoesnotmeanmerelyteachingformsanditiscertainlynotlimitedtoteachingexplicitform-basedrules．”Musumeci(1997)mentionstheideaofconnectingformandmeaningingrammarteaching勰adevelopingtrendinreferencetotheproficiency-orientedcurriculum。Shepointsoutthatstudentsshouldbeabletolearnexplicitgrammarrulesandtohaveachancetopracticethemincommunicationintheauthenticorsimulationtasks．H．GWiddowson(1979)believesthatknowledgeofalanguagedoesnotmeanonlyaknowledgeoftheruleswhichwillgenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences，butaknowledgeoftheruleswhichregulatetheuseofsentencesformakingappropriateutterancesandthatanutteranceisnotajustthephysicalmanifestationofanabstractruleofgrammar,itisalsoallactofcommunication．S．PitCorder(1973)alsopointsoutthatitisnotsufficientmerelytoenablethelearnertoproducegrammaticalsentences，hemustknowwhenandhowtousethemandgrammaticalabilityisonlyoneelementcontributingtocommunicativecompetence．OilerandObrecht(1968)foundthattheeffectivenessofpatterndrillsissignificantlyincreasedwhenthelanguageinthedrillisrelatedtocommunication．Itisconcludedthatfromtheverybeginningofasecondlanguageprogram，aspectsofgrammaticalcompetenceshouldbetaughtinthecontextofmeaningfulcommunication．ThelinguisticsmentionedabovegiveUSahintthatteachinggrammarfocusesonformisnotenoughbutonmeaningaswell．ThenhowtoachieveteachingmeaningingrammarteachingiscomingintoOurconsideration．CLTmaybetheeffectivewaytosolvetheproblems．Now，let’shavealookatthecomparisonwhichCelce-Murica(1985)madebetweenmoreeffectiveandlesseffectivewaysofgrammarteachinginTable1．8 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Table1EffectiveandlesseffectivewaysofgrammarteachingMoreeffectiveLessef．fectiveCommunicativeactivitiesManipulativedrillsContext-embeddedpracticeContext-fleepracticeText．basedexercisesSentence．basedexercisesCognitivelydemandingactivitiesCognitivelyunderstandingactivitiesAuthenticmaterialsContrivedmaterialsInterestingandmotivatingcontentDullorneutraleontent(AdaptedfromCelee-Murica,1985)Havinglearnersparticipateinvarietyoftaskswhichencouragethemtonegotiatemeaningwhencommunicationproblemsariseisconsideredessential，bothtoenSlLrethat廿leyobtainsufficientcomprehensibleinputfortheacquisitionoflinguisticcompetence(Long,1983)，andtoprovidetherealoperatingconditionsneededtodevelopthekindofstrategiccompetencewhichisnecessaryforthedevelopmentoffluency(Bmmfit,1984)．Havinganalyzedthedifferentviewsonthegrammarteaching,HuZhuanglinalsopointsoutthatwhatweneedisacommunicative—grammaticalapproach,acommunicativeapproachcoupledwithgrammarToputitinaword，CLTdoesnotexcludegrammarteachinginlanguageteachingbutreconsidershowtoteachgrammarmoreeffectively．Ontheotherhand，CLTfocusesonstudent-centeredclass，providingmoreopportunitiesforstudentstopracticeSt)thatstudentscanknowtheformaswellasmeaninganduseoflanguage．Therefore，thequestionarisingisnotwhethertoteachgrammarornotbuthowtoteachgrammar．Educatorscontinuetosearchforwaystointegrateformalgrammarinstructionwithcommunicativemethods．AsTriciaHedge(2000：145)pointsoutthatweshouldconsiderthequestionthathowtointegrategrammarteachingintoacommunicativemethodologywhichpaysattentiontoallaspectsofcommunicativecompetence,SO勰tokeepabalancebetweenpresentinglearnerswithlanguagedatacontainingexampleofidealizedgrammarruleswhichtheyCanprocessforintakeandexposingthemtoauthenticlanguagedatawithwhichtheywillbeconfrontedoutsideclassroom．JenniferOpelalsoviewsthatgrammarinstruction，whetherimplicitorexplicit，needstobeincludedinthecommunicativeapproachtoteaching，andneeds9 山东师范大学硕士学位论文tobetaughtinthecontextofcommunicativeneeds，notasanisolatepartofthelanguage．Littlebrown(1991)holdsthatiftheteachingoflanguagerulesdoesnotmeetthelearners’needfortheircommunication，theteachingeffectscannotkeeplongtime．Toachievethelong-timeeffect,learnershouldkeeponusingtherulesincommunicatingaftertheteaching．Elis(1994)inhisstudyfoundthatinclassroomgrammarteachingmaycontainavarietyofinteractingformsandoneformmayunconsciouslyprovideanotherwayofinput．1．2GrammarTeachinginLanguageClassesatHomeForoveracentury,EnglishgrammarteachinginChinaisdominatedbytraditionalmethods，suchasGrammar-TranslationMethod，DirectMethodorAudio-LingualMethod．Inthesemethods，classroomteachers’focusisongrammarandstructureisolation,whichproducesunsatisfactoryresultandthestudentslackedtheabilitytospeakandunderstandEnglish．Inthe1970s，theCommunicativeLanguageTeachingapproachemergedasanewapproachinBritain,andyearslateritWasintroducedintoChina．ThatmadeusreconsideroBrtraditionalteachingapproaches．Nowitsrationaleandideashavebeenoneofthemainstreamsinfluencingthemethodofforeignlanguageteachinginourcountry．Asweknow，grammarteachingforalongtimeisthemainobjectiveinforeignlanguageteaching．In1992theStateEducationDevelopmentCommission(SEDC)introducedafunctionalsyllabusthatsetthegoalofcommunicativeteachingandlistedthecommunicativesyllabus．Communicativeteachingapproachfocusesondevelopingthecommunicativecompetence．Thisviewoflanguageacquisitionhasinfluencedlanguagepedagogyinencouraginglearner-centeredteaching．Learnercenteredness，combinedwiththeshifttoafocusoncommunicativecompetence，hashelpedtotransformthelanguage-teachingfielddramaticallyinthepasttwentyyears．Insteadofanexplicitfocusonlanguageitself,therehasbeenanemphasisonlearners’expressingtheirownmeaningsthroughlanguage． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter2TheoreticalFrameworkofCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)andGrammarTeaching2．1TheoreticalBasisforCLTTheultimatepurposeoflanguagelearningandteachingisforcommunication．Inordertoachievesuchapurpose，learnerswillhavetopossessasortofcompetence,withwhichtheymightbeabletouselanguageaccurately,fluentlyandappropriately．Somelinguistshavebeenarguingandresearchingtheissueofthenatureofthatcompetenceforthepastfewdecades．Hymesproposedtheterm‘communicativecompetence’inthemid-1960s．whichcontrastswinlChomsky’Slinguisticcompetence．Next,weCallstudytherelevanttheoriesofChomsky,Hymes，CanaleandSwain．2．1．1Chomsky’sLinguisticCompetenceInChomsky’Stheoryoftransformational—generativegrammar,hedistinguishedbetweenlinguisticcompetence，whichreferstoallidealizednativespeaker’Simplicitorexplicitknowledgeofthesystemofthelanguage，andlinguisticperformance，whichreferstotheactualuseoflanguage．IntermsofChomsky’Sdefinition,linguisticcompetenceisstable，butlinguisticperformanceisoftenimperfectbecauseitisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactorssuch雒memorylimitations，distractions，hesitations，tongueslips，embarrassment，pauses，pressure,anderrors．AndChomskybelievesthataspeaker’Sperformancedoesnotalwaysreflecthiscompetence．Chomsky’Stheoryservedasthebasisfortheworkofmanylinguistsinterestedinlanguageuse，secondlanguageacquisitionandlearning．However，histheoryWascriticizedbysomelinguistsduetohispayingattentiononlytotheabstractsystemofgrammaticalrules(Chomsky’Scompetenceisviewedas“grammaticalcompetence”)，ignoringthepracticaluseoflanguage．SomelinguistspointedoutthatChomsky’Stheoryofcompetenceandperformancedoesnotincludeanyreferencetoeithertheappropriatenessofanutterancetoaparticularcontextoritssocioculturalsignificance．Widdowsonsaidin1989，“Chomsky’Snotionofcompetencehasnothingwhatevertodowiththeactualizationoflanguagebehavior,communicativeor 山东师范大学硕士学位论文otherwise"’．2．1．2Hymes’CommunicativeCompetenceIncontrastwithChomsky’Slinguisticcompetenceoftheidealnativespeakers，Hymesproposedcommunicativecompetenceinwhichgrammaticalcompetenceisonlyoneofthecomponentsofknowledgethatnativespeakerspossess．AsHymesstatedthatthereare“severalsectorsofcommunicativecompetence，ofwhichthegrammaticalisone”(1981：l8)，hiscommunicativecompetencedenotestheabilitynotonlytoapplythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguageinordertoformgrammaticallycorrectsentencesbutalsotoknowwhenandwheretousethesesentencesandwithwhom．Itconsistsoff0111"sectors：1)whetherornotsomethingisformallypossible2)whethersomethingisfeasible3)whethersomethingisappropriatetocontext4)whetherornotsomethingisinfactdoneThefirstsectorisroughlyequivalenttoChomsky’Snotionofcompetence，i．e．grammaticalcompetencewithwhichaspeakerCancomprehendandcomposegrammaticallycorrectsentences．Thesecondsectorshowstheknowledgeofrulesofspeaking．Inrealcommunication，asentencelike‘ThemanMlledthemousethatwaschasedbythecatthatfoughtwiththedogthatWaskickedbythewomanwhowastheman3w／fe’isgrammaticallypossible，butisactuallynotfeasiblebecauseofourrestrictedpowersofprocessingoflanguage．Thethirdsectordenoteshowtouselanguageappropriately．Inaparticularcontext，asentenceCanbegrammaticallypossible,feasible,butinappropriate．Forexample：(A，astranger,approachesB，alocal，inthestreet)彳?CouMyoutellmethewaytotherailwaystation。please?B：Theraindestroyedthecrops．(Widdowson，1978)Thisisanextremeexample．B’Ssentenceremainsgrammaticallycorrect，ofcourse，butwemightwellhesitatetosaythatBhasagoodknowledgeofEnglishonthisevidence．Itisclearthatacquiringalanguagerequiresthatleamersshouldgetagoodknowledgenotonlyofhowtocomprehendandconstructgrammaticallycorrectsentences，butalsoofhowtouselanguageappropriatelyincertaincontextstoachieveacommunicativepurpose．Andthelastsectorrefers12 山东师范大学硕士学位论文tohowtouseandrespondtodifferenttypeofspeechacts．Hymes’theoryentailsnotonlyknowledgeaboutlanguagerulesandforms，butalsoknowledgethatenablesalanguageusertocommunicatefunctionallyandinteractively．WhileHymes’communicativecompetencerepresentstheuseoflanguageinasocialcontext，whichfocusesnotonlanguagelearningbutonlanguageassocialbehavior．Otherlinguists，suchasCanaleandSwain，laterexpandedhistheory．2．1．3CanaleandSwain’sCommunicativeCompetenceCanaleandSwainhadreactedtoHymes’characterizationofcommunicativecompetenceandproposedcommunicativecompetence，whichcallbeusedtointerpretandguidesecondlanguageandforeignlanguageteachingandtesting．CanaleandSwain(1980)statethatatheoryofcommunicativecompetenceis：One伽whichthereisasynthesisofknowledgeofbasicgrammaticalprinciples．knowledgeofhowlanguageisusedinsocialcontextstope咖mcommunicativefunctions,andknowledgeofhowutterancesandcommunicativefunctionscanbecombinedaccordingtothepnnc啦lesofdiscoursefj980：20)．Accordingtothem，communicativecompetenceconsistsofthefollowingcomponents：&grammaticalcompetence&sociolinguisticcompetence&discoursecompetence&strategiccompetenceIntheirframework，grammaticalcompetenceisroughlyequivalenttoChomsky’SlinguisticcompetenceandHymes’firstsector‘"whetherornotsomethingisformallypossible．’’Itincludesknowledgeofvocabulary，rulesofpronunciationandspelling,wordformationandsentencestructure．CanaleandSwanbelievethatgrammaticalcompetenceisallimportantcomponentofcommunicativecompetence．SociolinguisticcompetencetellsUSthatwithsuchacompetence，alanguageUSercalluseandunderstandthelanguageappropriatelyinvariouscontextstoconveyspecificcommunicativefunctions，such鹤complementing，apologizing，persuadingandthelike．Discoursecompetenceisconcernedwiththeabilitytocombineideastoachievecohesioninformandcoherenceinthought．Andstrategiccompetencereferstotheuseofverbalandnonverbalcommunicationstrategiestocompensatefordeficienciesinotherareasofcompetence 山东师范大学硕士学位论文ortoincreasecommunicativeeffectivenessingeneral．Besidestheabovelinguistswhoexploredthenatureofcompetence，otherlinguistsincludingHalliday(1975)，Savignon(1972)，Widdowson(1978)，andBachman(1990)alsoformulatedtheoreticalframeworksforcommunicativecompetence．Insummary,wemightconcludethatgrammaticalcompetenceoccupiesaprominentpositionasamajorcomponentofcommunicativecompetence．Itisessentialandnecessaryforcommunicationtotakeplace．ThiscanbewellillustratedbythestatementofCanaleandSwain：JustasHymes(1972)wasabletosaythattherearerulesofgrammarthatwouldbeuselesswithoutrulesoflanguageuse,sDwefeelthattherearerulesoflanguageusethatwouldbeuselesswithoutrulesofgrammar(1980：5)．Fromtheabovestatement,wecanseethatgrammaticalcompetenceandtheotherthreecompeteneesofcommunicativecompetenceinteractwithoneanother．CanaleandSwain(1980)stated，“⋯secondlanguagelearningwillproceedmoreeffectivelywhengrammaticalusageisnotabstractedfrommeaningfulcontext"’，andtheprimarygoalofcommunicativelanguageteachingshouldbetheintegrationofvariouscompetences．Inlanguageteachingandlearning,merelyknowinghowtoproduceagrammaticallycorrectsentenceisnotenough,languagelearnersshouldalsoknowhowtoproduceanappropriate，sociallyacceptableutteranceinallcontextsofcommunication．Widdowson(1979)pointsoutthatlearnersmustacquiretheknowledgeofgrammaticalstructure，i．e．howsyntacticallywell—formedutterancearecomposed，andknowledgeofgrammaticaluse，i．e．howgrammaticalstructuresareemployedindiscourse．Inaword，asolidgraspofgrammaticalknowledgehelpstoimproveotherabilities；withouttheabilityoftheotherthree，itisdifficulttogetthemeaningacross．Therefore，languageteachingshouldaimnotonlyatthedevelopmentoflearners’knowledgeoflanguagebutalsoatthedevelopmentoftheirabilitytousethelanguage．Then，theprobleminlanguageteachingisnotwhethertoteachgrammarornot，buthowtoteachgrammar．Thenwhatisaneffectiveapproachtoteachgrammar?ThepresentconditionofgrammarteachinginChinamakesitclearwhethergrammarteachingisoveremphasizedordisregardedhasproducedanadverseeffectonFLT．GrammarisoneofthefundamentalaspectsoflanguageforChinesestudents．However,grammarcannotguaranteetheuseoflanguageperfectly．Accordingtotheabovetheories，weshouldneitheravoidgrammarteachingnordealwithitinisolationregardlessofcontextual 山东师范大学硕士学位论文diversityandcommunicativefunctionsofgrammaticalitems．Teachersshouldnotteachonlyknowledgeaboutgrammaticalrulesandshouldteachstudentshowtounderstandanduselanguagebymeansofgranunar．Therefore，grammarshouldbetreatedincontextSOthatstudentsCanexperiencevarioususesofgrammaticalitemsindifferentcontexts，whichisofcrucialimportanceforthem．2．2Definition，FeaturesandPrinciplesofCLT2．2．1DefinitionRichardsandRodgers(2001)havereviewedanumberofworksonCLTanddescribedseveraldistinguishingfeaturesofit．As‘‘communicativecompetence"’isthedesiredgoal，inCLT，meaningisparamount(Finocchiaor&Brumfit,1983，citedbyRichardsandRodgers，2001)．Widdowsons(1979：248)givesthedefinition‘"communicativecompetenceis⋯asetofstrategiesorcreativeproceduresforrealizingthevalueoflinguisticelementsincontextsofuse，allabilitytomakeSenSeasaparticipantindiscourse，whetherspokenorwritten，bytheskilfuldeploymentofsharedknowledgeofcoderesourcesandrulesoflanguageuse．’’Ittakesintogreatconsiderationtheneedsofthestudents—1vbattoteachisbasedonconsiderationofwhatlanguagethelearnerswouldmostlikelyusetocommunicateintheforeignlanguage．Insocio—cognitiveperspectives，languageisviewedasavehicleofconveyingmeaning，andknowledgeistransmittedthroughcommunicationinvolvingtwoparts，forexample，speakersandlisteners，andwritersandreaders，butisconstructedthroughnegotiation．Asaconsequence，communicationisnotonlyamatteroffollowingconventionsbutalsoofnegotiatingthroughandabouttheconventionsthemselves．Itisaconvention—creatingaswellasconvention-followingactivity．Therefore，therearethreeelementsinvolvedintheunderlyinglearningtheory：communicationprinciple，task·basedprinciple，andmeaningfulnessprinciple．Basedonthisperception,whenappliedtolanguagelearning,functionalactivitiesandsocialinteractionactivitiesareconsequentlyselectedaccordingtohowwelltheyengagetheleamerinmeaningandauthenticlanguageuse；learningisinterpersonaltolearntocommunicate；attemptingtocommunicatemaybeencouragedfromthebeginning；dialogues，ifused，Centeraroundcommunicativefunctionsandnotnormallymemorized；andcontextualizationisbasicpremise；drillingmayoccur,butperipherally；anydevicethathelpstocommunicateandunderstandis 山东师范大学硕士学位论文acceptable(Finocchiaro＆Brumfit，1983，citedbyRichards&Rodgers，2001：156)．Tosomeextent，thatistosay,studentsdonotsimplylearnthelinguisticstructuresandgrammarrules．Rather,theyshouldbeactivelymakingmeaningthroughactivitiessuchascollaborativeproblemsolving，writingforapurpose，discussionoftopicsofgenuineinterest，andreading,viewingandrespondingtoauthenticmaterials．Sinceknowledgeandlearningareviewedassociallyconstructedthroughnegotiationaccordingtosocio-cognitiveperspectives，anotherdimensionofCLTislearner-centeredandexperience-based．“Withinteractivecommunicativelanguageuseasthecalloftheday,communicativeprocessesbecameasimportantaslinguisticproduct,andinstructionbecamemorelearner-centeredandlessstructurallydriven"’(Kern&Warschauer,2000)．Inanotherword，inCLTcontext，learnersareseenasactiveparticipantsintheconstructionofknowledge，ratherthanpassiverecipientsofinformationprovidedbytheteacherorthetextbook．Incontrast,languageteachersarenolongerviewedastheauthorityoftheknowledge，playingadominantrole．Rather,theysharedifferentrolessuchascommunicationfacilitator，independentparticipant,needsanalyst，counselor，andgroupprocessmanagertocreatemorefascinatingexperiencesforthelearners(Richards&Rodgers，2001)．2．2．2FeaturesThelinguistHuZhuanglinsummarizesthefeaturesofCLTasfollows：●It(CLT)concentratesonusefulandnecessarylanguageratherthansimplyonlanguageform(i．e．meaningaswellasgrammar)．1iltplacesmoreimportanceonthestudentsbeingfluentthanbeingabsolutelycorrect．OItpaysattentiontocommunicationtaskstobeachievedthroughthelanguageratherthansimplyexercisesonthelanguage．OItencouragesthestudentstotakepartactivelyratherthanjustlisteningtoorfollowingtheteacher．OItunderstandsthatstudentsareofdifferentstandardsratherthana‘‘lockstep’’approach(inwhichallstudentsgothroughthesamematerialsatthesamespeed)．Brown(1994)alsogivesthefourfeaturesinhisdefinitionoftheCommunicativelanguageTeaching：1．Classroomgoalsareforcedonallofthecomponentsofcommunicativecompetenceandnotrestrictedtogrammaticalorlinguisticcompetence．16 山东师范大学硕士学位论文2．Formisnottheprimaryframeworkfororganizingandsequencinglessons．Functionistheframeworkthroughwhichformsfiletaught．3．Accuracyissecondarytoconveyamessage．Fluencymaytakeonmoreimportantthanaccuracy．TheultimatecriterionforcommunicativeSq,le℃es$istheactualtransmissionandreceivingofintendedmeaning．4．Inthecommunicativeclassroom，thestudentsultimatelyhavetousethelanguage，productivelyandreceptively,inunrehearsedcontexts．2．2．3PrinciplesRichardsandRogers(1986)addressthatinpracticetherearesomeelementstobetakenintoaccount：thecommunicationprinciple(i．e．activitiesthatinvolverealcommunicationpromotelearning)，thetaskprinciple(i．e．activitiesinwhichlanguageisusedforcarryingoutmeaningfultaskspromotelearning)andthemeaningfulnessprinciple(i．e．1anguagethatismeaningfultothelearnersupportsthelearningprocess)．Finocchario&Bmmfit(1983：91—93)summarizetheprinciplesasfollows：1．Teachingislearner-centeredandresponsivetothestudents’needandinterests．2．Thetargetlanguageisacquiredthroughinteractivecommunicativeusethatencouragesthenegotiationsofmeaning．3．Genuinelymeaningfullanguageuseisemphasized，alongwithunpredictability,risk-taking,andchoice-making．4．Theformalpropertiesoflanguagearenevertreatedinisolationfromuse；languageformsarealwaysaddressedwithinacommunicativecontext．5．Thereisexposuretoexamplesofauthenticlanguagefromthetargetlanguagecommunity．6．Thestudentsareencouragedtodiscovertheformsandstructuresoflanguagefor7．Thereisawhole-languageapproachinwhichthefourtraditionallanguageskills(speaking,listening，reading，andwriting)areintegrated．2．3GrammarTeaching2．3．1DelfinitionofGrammar 山东师范大学硕士学位论文InOxfordAdvancedLearner’SDictionaryofCurrentEnglishwithChineseTranslation(1993)，grammarisreferredtoas“studyorscienceof,rulesfor,thewordsintosentences(syntax)，andtheformsofwords(morphology)”．LongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglish(1995)definesgrammaraS“thestudyofuseoftherulesbywhichwordschanget11eirformsandarecombinedintosentences．”Infact，grammaris‘"multi·dimensional”(Batstone，1994)andhasmulti—meanings．Differentpeopleseeitwithdifferentperspectives．Whiletakinglanguageasastartingpom，grammaristhefundamentalorganizingprincipleoflanguage(Crystal，1988)．Itisgenerallythoughttobeasetofrulesforchoosingwordsandputtingwordstogethertomakesense．Everylanguagehasagrammar．Ithasbeenheldthatifalanguageisabuilding，thewordsarebricksandthegrammaristhearchitect’Splan．Onemayhaveamillionbricks，butdonotmakeabuildingwithoutaplan．Similarly,ifapersonknowsamillionEnglishwords，buthedoesn’tknowhowtoputthemtogether,thenhecannotspeakEnglish(Sesuart,2000)．Inotherwords，grammarisaframeworktodescribelanguages．2．3．2CategoryofGrammarInrelationtolanguagepedagogy，grammarcanbeasubjectinthecurriculumorabooklistingrules，formsofpatternsoflanguageusedasteachingmaterials．Therearethreedistinctivetypesofgrammarused：prescriptivegrammar,descriptivegrammarandpedagogicalgrammar．Prescriptivegrammar‘"prescribes”whatpeopleshouldsayandwhattherulesoflanguageare．Earlygrammarianssetdownsuchrulesinschoolbooks．Adherencetosuchrulesdeterminedaperson’Seducationalstatus．2．DescriptivegrammarDescriptivegrammaristolookatwhatpeopleactuallysay．Itismoreconcernedwithhowlanguageisactuallyusedandissetoutinsystematicandprincipledrulesofaparticularlanguagebasedonacorpusofdata(awide-rangingsampleofspokenandwrittenlanguage)．3．PedagogicalgrammarPedagogicalgrammarisintendedtoprovidethosewhoareinvolvedinlanguageteaching(includingleamers)withinformationonthegrammarofthelanguageforthepurposesofteachingandlearning，syllabusconstruction，materialsdevelopmentandSOon．Itpresentsthegrammarofalanguageinwaysthatarepedagogicallyappropriatetolearner(usuallynon—native18 山东师范大学硕士学位论文learners)ofalanguage(Cater,1995)．Pedagogicalgrammarinvolvesthereflectionofteachingexperienceandlinguistictheory(Rutherford，1987)andthecorrelationtoalladequatedescriptivegrammarofthetargetlanguage(Tomlin,1994)．Forexample，RaymondMurphy’S(1992)GrammarinUseisonepedagogicalgrammar．2．3．3PrinciplesofGrammarTeachingNow，let’ShavealookatwhatprinciplesCanguideUSintheteachingofgrammar．BothT．HedgeandS．ThomburygiveUSsomeworthyanSWerS．T．Hedge(2000：158)considersthatthepresentationofgrammartolearnersshouldfacilitatelearninginmanyways：ItCallprovideinputfornoticingoutputandaccurateformsofEnglish；itCallpresenthigh-fi"equencygrammaticalitemsexplicitlytospeeduplearning；itcanprovideinformationaboutthecommunicativeUSeoflanguagestructuresbyeontextualizingtheminspokenandwritten；itCallgiveinformationimplicitlythroughexposuretoexamplesorexplicitlythroughinstructiononthestylisticvariationoflanguageform．S．Thombury(2003)summarizessomerulesofthumbabouttheteachingofgrammar：A．theRuleofContext--teachinggrammarincontext，i．e．teachinggrammaticalformsinassociationwithmeanings(ThechoiceofonegrammaticalformOVeranotherisalwaysdeterminedbythemeaningthespeakerorwriterwishestoconvey)．B．theRuleofUsemteachinggrammarinordertofacilitatethelearners’comprehensionandproductionofreallanguageratherthanasallendinitself．C．theRuleofEconomrlofulfilltheruleofUSe，beeconomical(economizingonpresentationtimeinordertoprovidemaximumpracticetime)．D．theRuleofRelevance-teachonlythegrammarthatstudentshaveproblemswith(startingoffbyfindingoutwhatstudentsalreadyknow，anddon’tassumethatthegrammarofEnglishisawhollydifferentsystemfromthelearners’mothertongue)．E．theRuleofNurture--teachingdoesn’tnecessarilycauselearning---notinanydirection(ratherthanoccurring勰flashesofinsight，languagelearningismoreoftenthannotaprocessofgradualapproximation．Insteadofteachinggrammar,trytoprovidetherightconditionsforgrammarlearning)．F．theRuleofAppropriacyInterpretalltheaboverulesaccordingtothelevels，needs，interests，expectationsandlearningstylesofthestudents(Givingalotofprominencetogrammar，oritmaymeanactuallyteachinggrammaratall—-inanyup—frontway)．Besides，Weshoulddecideforourselvesonthebasisofourownexperiencetowhatextentconsciouslearningcanbehelpful．Celce—Murcia(1985)developeda鲥dthatmayprovehelpful 山东师范大学硕士学位论文forinstructorsattemptingtoachieveasounddecisionregardingtheneedforform．Weshouldbearinminddifferentsituationstomakedifferentdemandsoftheinstructor．Celce．Murciamakesdistinctionbetweenvariouslearnerfactorsaccordingtowhichformbecomesmoreorlessimportant．asindicatedinTable2．Table2LearnerfactorandimportanceofformLearnerImportanceofformfactorLessimportantModeratelyimportantMoreimportantLearningstyleHolisticMixedAnalyticAgeChildrenAdolescentsAdultsProficiencyBeginningIntermediateAdvancedEducationalPre．1iterateSemi．1iterateLiterateBackgroundNoformaleducatedSomeformaleducatedWell．educated(AdaptedfromCelce—Murcia,1985)Grammarmaybeallobjectiveinitsownright．Therefore，itisnecessarytodistinguishbetweengrammarasameanstotheachievementofproficiency,andgrammarasallend．Itisrecognizedthathowmuchemphasiswegivetogrammardependsonthespecificproficiencyobjectivethatisaimedat．ShealsogivesthefiguresinTable3．Table3LearnerfactorandimportanceofafocusonformLearnerImportanceofafocusonformfactorLessimportantModeratelyMoreimportantLearningstyleHolisticMixedAnalyticSkillListeningSpeakingWriting一ReadingRegisterInformalConsultativeFormalNeed／useSurvivalVocationalProfessional(AdaptedfromCelce·Murcia，1985)Obviously,bothTriciaHedgeandScotThomburygiveUSsuggestionthatthegrammar 山东师范大学硕士学位论文teachingshouldbestudent-centeredSO弱tofacilitatethemtograspbothformandmeaningofthegrammarrulesbygettingstudentsinvolvedincommunicativeactivitiesortasks．Ontheotherhand，Celce—Mureiashowsuswhenandtowhatextentgrammarshouldbetaught，whichmayhelpUStomakedecisionahead．2．3．4CurrentModulesofGrammarTeachingThereai"esomecurrentmodulesofgrammarteachingtoprovidestudentswithlotsofopportunitiestousethetargetlanguage．A．ProcessingteachingmethodCffammarteachingisbasedonthecommunicationso嬲tounifytheformandfunctionofthetargetlanguage．Firstly,teacherspresenttheformexplicitlyforstudentstolearnitanditsfunction．Then，teachersdesignasetofinputactivities，whichaimtomotivatethestudentstounderstandthestructureinsteadofusingthem．Buttheseactivitiesmayhelpstudentsconnectthefunctionwiththeformintakingtheinputmaterials．Thegoalofthemoduleistohavestudentsunderstandtherelationshipbetweentheformandthemeaning．B．InteractivefeedbackThemoduleadvocatesthatlearnersnoticetheformofthetargetlanguageexplicitlyorimplicitlythroughtheactivitiesofinteractivefeedback,suchasrepetition,requirementofclarification，checkandidentificationandSOon，thatis，negotiatingandremedialstrategy．C．IncreasingtheexplicitnessoftextsThemoduleadvocatesmakingtheforminthetextsattractivebyunderlining,capitalizing,italicizingthegrammaritemsoaStoraisethestudents’consciousnessofthegrammarruleswiththeconsciOuscontr01．D．Task--basedmethodTherearethreetypesoftask：structure-basedproductivetask，comprehensivetaskandconsciousness-raisingtask．Thefirsttypeneedstousethetargetlanguagetocommunicateandthetaskdoesnotonlyfocusontheformbutalsocallonlearnerstomakeuseoftheformtoaccomplishthetask；thesecondoneistomaketheleamersnoticeandcomprehendtheforminthecarefullydesignedinputmaterials；thethirdonepresentstheexamplescontainingthestructureandthenasksthelearnerstostudythestructureandinferacertainrulesfromthem．E．Discourse．basedmethod 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Authenticorsimplifieddiscoursesarewidelyusedtogreatlysupplythestructuresofthetargetlanguageincontexttohelplearnerstobuildtheconnectionbetweentheformandthemeaning．TheadvocatesofthismethodnoticethatthestructuresarecommonlyassociatedwithTheaboveintroductionmayenlightenthatexplicitgrammarteachingmoduleispriortoimplicitone，andthattheeffectofcombiningdiscourseswithgrammarteachingisbetterthanthemeregrammarteaching，andthatitispossiblethatgrammarteachingandCommunicativeTeachingApproachcoexist．Furthermore，thegoalsofthemodulesaretostimulatestudentstoconnecttheformtothemeaningorfunctionofthetargetlanguage．2．4RelationshipamongCommunicativeCompetence，LinguisticCompetenceandGrammarTeaching2．4．1CommunicativeCompetenceandLinguisticCompetenceWilkins(1972)pointsoutthat“Linguisticformsprovideameanstoallendandthattheendiscommunication”(citedbyBrumfit&Johnson,2000：92)．Linguisticcompetenceispartofcommunicativecompetence．IntheresearchworkofCLT,peopledonotfailtofind，thoughacquiringcommunicativecompetenceisOurultimateaiminlearningaf．orei印language，thelinguistsdonotignoretheimportanceoflinguisticknowledge．Communicativecompetencewouldbecomerootlessiftherewerenolinguisticcompetenceasthebasis．Ifwedonotknowlanguageformsorrules，howCanwesuccessfullygetourselvesacrossorcommunicatewimotherpeople?Howcancommunicationbeappropriateifitisfullofmistakesorerrors?Sowecanreachtheconclusionthatcommunicationcanbeachievedthroughtheuseoflinguisticcompetence，ofwhichgrammarplaysaveryimportantpart．Withoutsomeunderstandingofgrammarthestudentswouldnotbeabletocarryoutcommunicationmorethanutterseparateitemsoflanguageforseparatefunctions．Theexpressionoffunctionallanguageisonlypossiblethroughtheuseofgrammarofthelanguage．Oursuggestionisthatstudentslearnthegrammarofthetargetlanguage，whichiscentraltolanguageuse．Asthestudentsarearmedwithlinguisticcompetencetheywillalsobeshownhowtouseittoperformfunctionsthatarerelevanttotheirneeds．Sogrammaticalitemsaswellasfunctionswillhavetobetaught． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文2．4．2LinguisticCompetenceinGrammarTeachingThevalueofgrammarinforeignlanguageteachinghasbeenafocusofdebatefordecadesandnoconclusionisinsight．PerhapstheanswerstOwhethergrammarshouldbetaughtandtowhatextentgrammarshouldbetaughtdependoncertainvariablesinthelanguageteaching／1earningcontext，suchaslearnervariablesandinstructionalvariables．Forexample，itisbelievedthatteachinggrammarislessimportantforchildrenthanforadults，anditislessimportantinlisteningandreadingthaninwriting(Celce—Murcia,1991)．Inmostcases，grammarisstillbeingtaught,especiallyinformalclassroomlanguageteaching．Here,someexamplesarechosentoshowtheimportanceofgrammarteachingfromabooknamedHowtoTeachGrammar?(ScottThornbury,1999：14)‘"Thereisnodoubtthatakindofknowledge--implicitorexplicit---ofgrammaticalrulesisessentialforthemasteryofalanguage!’’(PennyUr,ateachertrainer,andauthorofGrammar‘‘AsoundknowledgeofgrammarisessentialifpupilsaregoingtouseEnglishcreatively．”(TomHutchinson，acoursebookwriter)Isitnecessarytoteachgrammar?TheanSWeris‘"Yes”．EspeciallyforChinesestudents，iftheydon’tknowsomegrammaticalrules，theywon’texplainwhythefollowingsentencesareacceptable：Iusuallygotoschoolbybus．Butwhythisoneisnotaccepted：Iusually砂busgotoschoolNeitheriSthisone：Igotousuallyschoolbybus．Fromalearner’Sperspective．theabilitybomtorecognizeandtoproduceweU—formedsentencesisanessentialpartoflearningaforeignlanguage．ButwhydoSOmanypeoplehavedoubtsaboutwhethergrammarshouldbetaught?Therearethreereasons．First，thereisagreatdealofdebateastohowthisabilityisbestdeveloped．Second，itisnotentirelyclearwhat‘well—formed’reallymeans，whenalotofnaturallyoccurringspeechseemstOviolatestrictgrammaticalrules．Forexample，inmanyEnglish-speakingcontextsWeain≥athomewouldbepreferredto耽arenotathome，yetonlythelatterhasmadeitintothegrammarbooks．Third，23 山东师范大学硕士学位论文moreattentionfocusesonsentences，ratherthanontextsoronwords．Thereismoretolanguageleamingthantheabilitytoproducewell—formedsentences．Tosumup，grammaristhegroundofusingthelanguagecreatively,andmostlanguagestudywithouteffectivegrammarlearningwillsurelyhavenegativeeffectsonthedevelopmentofthelearner’Slinguisticcompetence．2．4．3CommunicativeCompetenceinGrammarTeachingTheapplicationofthecommunicativeapproachhasprocessedinOurcountryformorethantwodecades．Uptonow,alotofEnglishteachershaven’tcombinedthecommunicativeapproachwithgrammarteaching．Sonomatterhowstudentsaretaughtgrammaticalconcepts，syntacticconstructionsandstylisticdevices，orlanguageconventionsandeditingconcepts，theywillnotautomaticallymakeuseoftheseintheircommunication．Thatmeanswhenteachersteachgrammar,theyseparategrammaticalcompetencefromcommunicativecompetenceunconsciously．Actually,theyareinterdependent．Grammaticalcompetenceisthebasisofhighcommunicativecompetence．Goodgrammaticalcompetenceprovidesthefoundationforsuccessfulcommunication．Forexample，lookatthefollowingwrongsentences：Thankyoucarrythebagfo，．me．Canyoutellmewhere括thebookstore?Ihelpedshegohome．1wasrantOtheshop，buttheshopwasclosed．1wasonthewaytothehospitaltometLiMing．Itisobviousthatthesegrammaticallywrongsentencesneedcorrecting．Therefore，grammarteachingcanmakestudents’communicationperfect．ButthepointthatwemustpayattentiontoisthatpeopleCanalsocommunicatewithlittlegrammar．Thatmeansvocabularyalsoconveysmeaning．Let’Stakethisexample：aticketinspectoronatrainsays：Herethereislittleornogrammar---inthesenseofeithermorphologyorsyntax．Themeaningisconveyedsimplyatthelexical，orwordlevel，tickets．Situationalfactorsmsuchausthepassengers’expectationthattheinspectorwillwanttochecktheirtickets--meanthatthelanguagedoesn’thavetoworkhardtomakethemeaningclear．AruleofthumbCanbeformulated：themorecontexts，thelessgrammar．“行ckets!”isagoodexampleofthis．But24 山东师范大学硕士学位论文imagineasituationwhenapersonisphoninganotherpersontoaskathirdpersontoforwardsomepre·bookedairlinetickets．Inthiscase，乃ckets!wouldbeinadequate．Instead，theexpressionbelowwouldbeexpected：CanyouaskBilltosendmetheticketsthat1bookedlastweek?Crranlmarisaprocessformakingaspeaker’Sorlistener’Smeaningclearwhencontextualinformationislacking．EventhoughpeopleCallcommunicatewithotherswitlllittlegrammar,theyCaIlunderstandeachotherclearly．However,mostofthecommunicationisbasedonprofoundgrammaticalcompetence．Tosumup，ifstudentsareonlygivendetailedgrammaticalrules，theywon’tknowwhentoBsethemorhowtollsethem．Thecommunicationwithothersmightbedivorcedfromtherealcontext．Ontheotherhand，ifstudentsdon’tlearngrammaticalrules，theyonlypracticethelanguageincontext,theywon’tproduceaccuratesentencesverywell．AnyhOWthelistenersmaygetconfusedbyinaccuratesentences．Sogrammarshouldbetaughtandpracticedincontext，andstudentsshouldbegivenenoughchancestopracticewhattheyhavelearntinclassandafterclass．OnlyinthiswayCanourstudentslearnaf．o而印languagesuccessfully． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter3TheExperiment3．1PurposeoftheExperimentMostChinesestudentscannotcommunicatewithothersinEnglishfreely,eventhoughtheyhavestudiedEnglishforseveralyears．TheymayknowEnglishgrammarbetterthannativespeakers．WhydotheyhaveproblemscommunicatingwithothersinEnglish?Onereasonisthattheyhavelearnedeverythingfromtextbooks，buttheydon’thaveanychancetocommunicatewithothersbyusingwhattheyhavelearnedinclass．Theotherreasonisthattheirteachersusuallyteachthemgrammarinthetraditionalapproach．Teachersdesignexerciseswhichmerelymakestudentsgethi曲marksinpurelystructuredtestsorquizzes，buttheydonotnecessarilyhelptodevelopstudents’proficiencyorabilityinusinglanguageeffectivelyandappropriatelyinacommunicativecontext．SotheexperimentiscarriedouttoprovethatgrammarteachingthroughtheCommunicativeApproachismuchmoresuitableforChinesestudents．TeachinggrammarthroughtheCommunicativeApproachnotonlymakesstudentsgethighmarksintheEnglishexaminationbutalsomakesthemcommunicatewithothersmoresuccessfully．3．2SubjectsTheexperimentiscarriedoutfromSeptember,2008toDecember,2008．Thesubjectsinvolvedare86non-EnglishmajorstudentsinWeifangVocationalCollege．Allofthemarefirst—yearcollegestudents．42ofthemarefromClassOne，and44ofthemarefromClassTwo．Accordingtotherandomsamplingprincipleandarequestofequalassignation,theExperimentalClass(ClassOne)andtheControlClass(ClassTwo)areorganized．3．3InstrumentsandtheDesign(1)Pre-testPre—testisusedtotestthesubjects’grammaticalcompetencebeforetheexperiment．Thetestingpaperforthepre—testincludes50multiplechoiceswithafullmarkof100．Ifthestudentgetsoneofthemcorrect，he／shewillget2marks．Otherwise，he／shewillget0．Thecontentsofthetestingpaperincludethefollowinggrammaticalitems：No．1—10aretotestthesubjects’imperatives；No．11-20aretotestthesubjects’passivevoice；No．21—30aretotestthesubjects’attributiveclause；No．31-40aretotestthesubjects’non—finiteverbs；No．41—50aretotestthe26 山东师范大学硕士学位论文subjects’subjunctivemood．(2)Post—testPost—testisusedtotestthesubjects’grammaticalcompetenceaftertheexperiment．Thetestingpaperforthepost·testincludes50multiplechoiceswithafullmarkof100．Ifthestudentgetsoneofthemcorrect，he／shewillget2marks．Otherwise，he／shewillget0．Thecontentsofthetestingpaperincludethefollowinggrammaticalitems：No．1—10aretotestthesubjects’imperatives；No．1l一20aretotestthesubjects’passivevoice；No．21-30aretotestthesubjects’attributiveclause；No．31-40aretOtestthesubjects’non-finiteverbs；No．41—50aretOtestthesubjects’subjunctivemood．(3)QuestionnairesThequestionnairesconsistoftwoparts．QuestionnaireIincludestenquestions(No．1—7：opinions；No．8—10：suggestions)，whicharedesignedtogetthesubjects’opinionsandsuggestionsaboutCommunicativeApproach．QuestionnaireIIiscomposedoffivequestions，whichshowthesubjects’attitudestowardstraditionalgrammarapproach．3．4MaterialsThetargetgrammaticalitemsfortheexperimentareallfromNewCenturyCollegeEnglishCourse--Imperatives，PassiveVoice,AttributiveClauses，Non-finiteVerbsandSubjunctiveMood．Everybookincludes8units，eachofwhichconsists3parts---ReadingSelection，LanguageStructure，andPracticeandImprovement．Moreover,grammarplaysaveryimportantroleineveryunit．Theothermainmaterialisquestionnaires．Othermaterialsusedintheexperimentincludeataperecorderandamulti—mediaclassroom．3．5ProceduresInthefirstsemesterof2008to2009academicyear，theexperimentwascarriedout．Theexperimentwasdividedintothreestagesandfinishedinfourmonths．(seeTable4)27 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Table4ProceduresInvolvedintheExperiment、№ekProceduresWeeklPre．testWeek2．3TeachingImperativesWeek4．6TeachingPassiveVoiceWeek7．9TeachingAttributiveClauseWeek10．13TeachingNon-finiteVerbsWeek14．17TeachingSubjunctiveMoodWeek18Post-testandQuestionnairesAtthefirststage(Week1)，anexaminationpaperwasdistributedtoalltheparticipants．ThemaintaskofthisstageistocompareandanalyzethepretestscoresofthetwoclassesSOthatwecanmakesurethetwoclassesareinthesameground．Also，fromthetestresultwecanknowtheirconditionaboutgrammaticalcompetence．Timeallottedforexaminationisfi衄minutes．Thesecondstage(Week2-17)istheexperimentaltime．TheImperatives，PassiveVoice，AttributiveClause，Non—finiteVerbs，andSubjunctiveMoodweretaughtduringthisperiod．Alltheparticipantsusedthesameteachingmaterialsandweretaughtfourlessonseachweek．Eachlessonhadfijftyminutes．Theauthortaughtthetwoclassesusingtwodifferentmethods：theExperimentalClassadoptedCommunicativeApproach，whiletheControlClassadoptedthetraditionalapproachingrammarteaching．Taketheimperativesforexampletoshowtheprocessoftheexperiment．Sample1：UsingtheCommunicativeApproachtoteachimperativesintheExperimentalClassStepOne：Theteacheraskedtwostudentstocometothefrontoftheclass，wheretherewere28threechairsplacedinarow,facingtherestoftheclass．Theteachersatinthemiddlechairandthetwostudentssateitherside．TothetwostudentsshesaidStandUpandatthesametimestoodupherself,indicatingwithagesturethatthestudentsshoulddothesame．TheteacherthensaidWalk，andwalkedacrosstheroom，indicatingtothestudentstodothesame．Furtherinstructionsfollow：Stop．．．turnaround．．．walk．．．stop．．．turnaround．．．sitdown．Eachtimetheteacheractedouttheinstructionandthestudentsfollowed．Bythismeans，whentheyhadreturnedto 山东师范大学硕士学位论文theirseats，theteachersignaledtothestudentsonherlefttoremainseated．Thesequencewasthenrepeated，butthistimeonlythestudentonthefightperformedtheactions，followingtheinstructionsfromtheteacher,who，alongwiththeotherstudent，remainedseated．Whenthestudentshadsuccessfullyperformedtheinstructions，itwastheturnoftheotherstudent．TllistimetheorderoftheinstructionsWasslightlyvaried．Theteachernextcalledononeortwomorestudentsfromtheclasstoperformthesetofinstructions．StepTwo：Theteachertaughtthenamesofvariousfeaturesoftheclassroom，suchasblackboard,door,table，window,chair,floor,light，simplybypointingtoeachoneandsayingitsnameafewtimeswhilestudentslistened．Withonestudenthethendemonstrated，followingasimilarprocedureasinStepOne，theinstructions：pointto．．．，walkto．．．，touch···，open··．，andclose．．．，usingasobjectstheclassroomfeaturespreviouslytaught．Forexample，walktothedoobopenthedoor,closethedoor,turnaround,walktotheblackboard，pointtothewindow,touchthefloor．．．thestudentsperformedtheactionswhiletherestoftheclasswatched．Morestudentsactedoutsimilarsetsofinstructions，givenbytheteacher,whograduallyincreasedthenumberanddensityofinstructionsbeforetlleyactuallystartedtoperformthem．StepThree：WithonestudenttheteacherthendemonstratedthemeaningofDon’t⋯bytellingthestudent：Standup．Don’twalk．Don’tturnaround．Sitdown⋯，indicatingwhenitWasappropriatetoperformtheactionandwhennot．StepTwowasthenrepeated，butwimtheinclusionofnegativeimperativefordon’t．StepFour：Theteacherwrotethefollowingexamplesaboutimperativesentencesontheblackboard．Shereadaloudthesesentencesandaskedthestudentstorepeatthembeforewritingthemdowninmeirbooks．Thesesentencesare：(Don’t)Standup．Sitdown．、№U【．Stop．Turnaround．(Don’t)Walktotheblackboard．Pointtothelight．OpenthedooLClosethewindow．Touchthefloor．StepFive：Playagame．Anyoneofthestudentscouldcometothefrontandordertheothers． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Bothnegativeimperativeandpositiveimperativecouldbeused．Fromthislesson,Weknowthatlearningalanguagethroughactionssimulatedtheexperienceoffirstlanguagelearning．Inthislesson，therewasnopressureonthelearnerstospeak．Furthermore，whentheteacherperformedtheinstructions，thestudentsseemedtokeepsilent，butinfact，theyWereconcentratingsolelyonunderstandingtheinputwithouttherequirementtoproduceaccurateoutput．Andtheruleforformationoftheimperativewasnotovertlystated．ThelanguagedataWassimplyorganizedinsuchawaySOastoenablethelearnersthemselvestoformulatetherule．Ontheotherhand,theteacherintheControlClasspresentedthegrammarrulesdeductively．Afterthepresentation,mechanicalpracticewascarriedoutalotinordertomakestudentsrememberthegrammaticalrulescorrectly．Sample2：UsingthetraditionalapproachtoteachimperativesintheControlClassStepOne：PresentationTeacher：Hello，everyone．Todaywewilllearnimperativesentences．Ifweordersomeone，wecanusetheimperativesentence．Forexample：Tom．Standup．Comehere．(Theteacherwritestheimperativesentenceontheblackboard．Shereadssentencesaloud，andthenasksthestudentstorepeatthemafterher．)Teacher：Ifweasksomeonenottodosomething,whatwillWesay7．Forexample：Tomislookingoutofthewindowintheclass．TheteachertellsTom：Don’tlookoutofthewindow,Tom．Listentomecarefully．(Theteacherwritesthissentenceontheblackboard．Shereadsthesentencealoud，andthenasksstudentstorepeatthemafterher．)Teacher：Now,let’Scomparethesesentencesandtrytofindthedifferencesbetweenthepositivesentenceandthenegativesentence．WeCanfindthatwebeginwritingthepositivesentencewitllinfmitivewhichomitsto．andwebeginwritingthenegativesentencewithDon’t+infmifivewhichomitsto．StepTwo：PracticeTeacher：．Now,let’Strytodosomeexercisesabouttheimperativesentences．IsaythesentencesinChinese，youtellmehowtosaytheminEnglishtogether．StepThree：ProductionTheteachergivesstudentstheopportunitytopracticetheimperativesentencesthroughvery 山东师范大学硕士学位论文controlledactivitiesorinfreeactivitieswhichwerearrangedbytheteacherafterclass．Fromthislesson，teachersdesignedexercisesthatmerelyengagedstudentsinscoringinpurelystructuredtests．Theteacher’Sgoalofteachinggrammarwastomakestudentsgethighmarksintheexamination．Moststudentshaveriochancetousewhattheylearnedtocommunicatewithothersinclass．InsomeSenSe，theclassseemedboring．InSample2，theclasswasteacher-centered，andtheteacher’Steachingtimewasmorethanthestudents’learningtime．InthisexperimentaresultCanbeshownclearlythatteachinggrammarthroughtheCommunicativeApproachmightbemuchmoreeffectivethanteachinggrammarthroughthetraditionalapproachbycomparingtheCommunicativeApproachandthetraditionalgrammarteaching,andbyanalyzingthedatacollectedthroughtheteachingexperiment．Thethirdstage(Week18)：thepost-testisusedtoobservethechangesbetweenExperimentalClassandControlClassaftertheexperiment，whichissignificanttotheSUCCESSoftheexperiment．Thepost．testpapersforECandCCweredesigneda11thesameasthepretestpapersintheformat,thequantityofquestionstestedandthetimeallocationSOastoguaranteethetestsreliable，objfectiveandcomparable．Inadditiontothepost-testpapers，theauthordesignedthequestionnairesforthestudentsintheECtoanswer．Allthedatainformationfromthepost-testandquestionnairesWasanalyzedcarefully．3．6ASampleLessonPlanThefollowingisthesamplelessonplanofteachingpassivevoice．TargetGroup：Thefirst-yearstudentsinWeifangVocationalCollegeClass：ExperimentalClass(ClassOne)NumberofStudents：42LengthofLesson：50minutesTextbook：NewCenturyCollegeEnglishCourseInstructional0bjective(s)：▲Studentswilllearnhowtoformthepassivevoice．▲StudentswillimprovecommunicativecompetenceandlinguisticcompetencewithCommunicativeApproach．3I 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Materials：▲Textbook▲Picturesofdifferentsizes▲Handoutandoverheadonreasonstousethepassivevoice▲ExerciseonusingthepassivevoicePreparation：Forpreparation，theteachermustpreparesomepicturesofdifferentsizes．Second，theteachermustprepareahandoutandanoverheadonthereasonsthepassivevoiceisused．Next,theteachermustpreparethepassive-voiceracegame．Theteachermustmakeanactive-voicesentenceforeachstudentintheclassandcutitoutonaslipofpaper．Lastly,theteachermustprepareanexercisewherethestudentsmustdecideonusingthepassivevoiceortheactivevoice．Warm-upActivity：Supposeanemployeeislateforwork，hissupervisorknowsitandwantstofirehim．Thenaskthestudentstomakeadialoguewiththeirpartners．Duringlisteningtothedialogue，therestCantakenotesandwritedownthesentenceswithpassivevoice．Forexample：Supervisor：You’relate!Employee：Iknow,Iknow⋯I"msorry．I"llgetrighttowork．I"mgoingtostocktheshelvesthismorning．Supervisor：Theshelveshavealreadybeenstocked．Employee：Really7．Bywhom?Supervisor：BySandra．Employee：Sandrastockedtheshelves?Okay,thenI"llcleantheaisles．Supervisor：Theaisleshavealreadybeencleaned．Employee：Sandradidthosetoo?Supervisor：No，theywerecleanedbyJonathon．Employee：Jonathoncleanedtheaisles?Isee．Okay,whydon’tIunloadthetruck?Supervisor：Becauseithasalreadybeendone，too．Employee：You’rekiddingme．Bywhom?32 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Supervisor：Byme!Employee：Youunloadedthetruck!Oh，I"msorry．Youhaveasoreback，don’tyou?Supervisor：Yes，Ido．Mybackhasbeensoresincethelasttimeyouwerelate．Ihadtounloadthetruckthatday,too．Employee：YoushouldhavehadJonathondoit．Supervisor：That’Sit，you’refired!Employee：ButDad⋯?!?PresentationActivities：1．Writedownthesentenceswithpassivevoiceontheblackboard．Theshelveshavealreadybeenstocked(bySandra)．Theaisleshavealreadybeencleaned(byJonathon)．Thetruckhasalreadybeenunloaded(byhisdad)．Theformofpassivevoice(be+P．P)isthusintroduced．Next,explaintheusageof‘"bywhom”andthepurposeofpassivevoice．Tocheckcomprehension，showthestudentspicturesofJ．EKennedyhimselfandthescenewherehewaskilled．Ask：1)却whomwashekilled?2)Whenwashekilled?Toclarifythedifferenceofactivevoiceandpassivevoice，tellashortstory：‘"Johnsawaprettygirl．Hewenttotalktoher．Herhusbandarrived．ThehusbandhitJohnonthenose．”Whiletellingit,askthemwhatwouldhappennext．Afterthestoryisfinished，asktwoquestions：1)Whatdidthehusbanddo?(Activevoiceisusedintheanswer．)2)WhathappenedtoJohn?(Passivevoiceisused诫theanswer．)2．Oncethestudentsknowtoformthepassivevoice，theteacherwillgothroughreasonswhythepassivevoiceisusedinsteadoftheactivevoice．Theteacherwillstresstothestudentsthat95％ofacademicwritingisdoneintheactivevoice，buttherearecertainoccasionswherethepassivevoiceisused．ReasonsforUsinethePassiveVoice@Passivevoiceisusedwhentheagent(doerofanaction)isobvious，unknown，orunnecessary．Forexample：1)OrangesaregrowninCalifornia．33 山东师范大学硕士学位论文2)ToyotasaremadeinJapan．3)Herpursewasstolen．●Passivevoiceisusedwhentheagentisknown，butthespeaker／writerdoesnotwanttomentionit．Forexample：1)Shewasgivenbadadvice．2)Amistakehasbeenmade．●Passivevoiceisoftenusedwhentheagentisverygeneralsuchaspeopleorsomebody．2)ThedoorshouMbelockedatalltimes．●Passivevoiceisusedwhenthespeaker／writerwantstoemphasizearesultoremphasizethereceiveroftheactioninsteadoftheperformer．1)Seventhousandpeoplewerekilledbytheearthquake2)Theearthquakekilled7,000people．3)Theprofessorwashitbythreesnowballs．4)Threesnowballshittheprofessor．PracticeActivities：1．Oncethestudentsgothroughtheformulafortheactiveandpassivevoice，theclasswillplayagameinvolvingtheformationofthepassivevoice．Theclasswillbedividedupintotwoteams．Eachteamwillformasinglefileinfrontofthechalkboard．Eachstudentwillhaveapieceofpaperwithanactive-voicesentencewrittenonit．OnceIsay,“GO．’’thestudentsmustwritetheirsentenceontheboardinthepassive-voice．Thefirstteamtogothrougheachmemberwins．Oncethegameisover,wewilllookatafewsentencesontheboardtomakesuretheclassunderstandshowthepassivevoiceisconstructed．Passive．VoiceRaceGameDirections：Theclasswillbedividedintotwoteams．Eachmemberwillgetoneslipofpaperwithanactive—voicesentencewrittenonit．Theteamwhochangestheirsentencesintopassive1)Theteachergaveanassignment．2)ManypeoplevisitDisneyland． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文3)TheYankeeslosttheWorldSeries．4)Thepolicecapturedthethief．5)Therefereestoppedthegame．6)Thepitchhitthebatter．7)Theteachergaveagoodlecture．8)Thepresidentgreetedthecrowd．9)Thestormdestroyedallthehomes．10)Thecongressmencheeredthepresident．2．Oncewehavegonethroughthewaysinwhichwritersusethepassivevoice，1willgivethestudentsanexercisecontainingallpassive-voicesentences．Someofthesentencesshouldremaininthepassiveformandothershouldbechangedtotheactive．Thestudentswillworktogethertofigureoutwhichsentencestoleaveandwhichsentencestochange．Studentsmustbepreparedtoexplmntheiranswers．WewillgoOVerthisexerciseasaclassoncethestudentshavefinished．AcfiveandPassiveVoice“白rksheetDirections：Thefottowingsentencesarewritten拥passivevoice．Writethereasonwhythepassivevoiceisusedfo，．eachsentence．IfyouthinkthesentenceshouMbewritten伽theactivevoice,re-writethesentence扬theactivevoice．Bepreparedtoexplainallyouranswers．1)Thethiefwasseizedbyapoliceman．2)300passengerswereheldhostagebytheterrorists．3)Thestagewasexitedbymeonlyafteralongstandingovation．4)Thelightsinthelivingroomwereleftonlastnight．35 山东师范大学硕士学位论文5)Thehousewasbrokeninto．6)IWaSraisedinNewJersey．7)Theradioprogramwaslistenedtobyme．8)Thelandscapingwasinstalledbythehomeowner．9)ProfessorSpenceWasgivenbaddirections．10)ThecomputerwasmanufacturedinTaiwan．Production／Application：Asahomeworkassignment，studentswillbeaskedtofindashortarticleinanewspaperormagazineandlookforpassive-voicesentences．Tlleywillbeaskedtounderlinethesentencesandwritewhytheywereusedinthepassivevoiceandnottheactivevoice．3．7ResultsandDiscussions3．7．1TheSubjects’GrammaticalCompetencebeforetheExperimentThepre—testwascarriedoutinordertoshowthesameEnglishlevelofthetwoclasses．Itincluded50multiplechoices，whichwerecomposedoffivegrammaticalitemsmlmperatives，PaSsiveVoice，AttributiveClause，Non—finiteVerbsandSubjunctiveMood．Table5istheresultsfromthepre·testscoresbetweenthetwoclasses． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Table5TheSubjects’GrammaticalCompetencebeforetheExperimentClassNumbefofAverageScoreStandardT-testandStudentsDeviationDifferenceAnalysisCC4464．326．74Z；0．083EC4264．197．7lTable5indicatesthattheaveragescoreoftheECisalittlelowerthanthatoftheCC，butitdoesnotshowanysignificantdifferencesbetweenthetwoclasses．ForZ=0．083，IzI<1．96．Thatistosay,thecurrentgrammarlevelofeachclasswon’tinfluencetheeffectofthisexperiment．3．7．2TheSubjects’GrammaticalCompetenceaftertheExperimentPost-testisusedtoobservethechangesbetweenECandCCaftertheexperiment．Thepost-testpaperWasdesignedallthesameasthepre··testpaperintheformat,thequantityofquestionstestedandthetimeallocationSOastoguaranteethetestsreliable，objectiveandcomparable．Table6istheresultsfromthepost-testscoresbetweenthetwoclasses．Table6TheSubjects’GrammaticalCompetenceaftertheExperimentClassNumberofAverageScoreStandardT-testandStudentsDeviationDifferenceAnalysisCC4471．1411．23Z=4．2EC4279．67713lTable6indicatesthatbothclassesmadeprogressinEnglishlearningaftertheexperiment．西eaveragescoreoftheECis79．67andaveragescoreoftheCCis71。14．乃eaveragescoreoftheECismuchhigherthanthatoftheCC．Itshowsthesignificantdifferencesbetweentwoclasses．ForIZI=4．2>1．96．Ontheotherhand，thetableshowsUSthatstandarddeviationis7．31intheEC，meanwhile，11．23intheCC．Thegapbetweenthesetwoclassesistoobig：thedeviationdegreeintheCCismuchbiggerthanthatintheEC．Itshowsthatthetraditionalapproachonlyfitssmallnumberofthestudents；however,theCommunicativeApproachis37 山东师范大学硕士学位论文suitabletomakenumbersofstudentsimprovetheirEnglish．Next，let’Sseethecomparisonofthetwoclassesbetweenthepre—testandthepost·testrespectively．Table7TheSubjects’GrammaticalCompetencebefore&aftertheExperiment(cc)TestNumberofAverageScoreStandard％testandStudentsDeviationDifferenceAnalysisPre-test4464．326．74Z=3．46Post．test4471．1411．23Tooursurprise，inTable7，standarddeviationis6．74beforetheexperiment,andis11．23afterfour-monthexperiment．Itshowsthatsomestudentsgotagoodmark，atthesametime,somestudents’markswerelowerthanthatbeforetheexperiment．Thedata,oncemore，indicatesthatthetraditionalapproachonlymakesstudentsimproveonasmallscale．Onthecontrary,theCommunicativeApproachachievesbetterresultsinEnglishgrammarteaching．Table8TheSubjects’GrammaticalCompetencebefore&aftertheExperiment(EC)TIestNumberofAverageScoreStandardT-testandStudentsDeviationDifferenceAnalysisPre．test4264．197．71Z=9．44Post-test4279．677．31LetUScomparethestandarddeviationsbetweenthepre-testandthepost-testinTable8．Itiseasytofindthatthestandarddeviationinthepre-testisnearlythesameasthatinthepost-test．Furthermore，theaveragescoreaftertheexperimentismuchhigherthanthatbeforetheexperiment．ItindicatesthatalargenumberofstudentsareattractedbytheCommunicativeApproachandtheyarewillingtotakepartintheactivitiesinclass．Ontheotherhand，IZI=9．44>1．96．ItisillustratedbydatathatteachinggrammarthroughtheCommunicativeApproachismuchmoreeffectivethanthroughthetraditionalapproach，andthestudents’interestscanleadtoamuchbettereffect．38 山东师范大学硕士学位论文3．7．3TheSubjects’Opinions&SuggestionsaboutCommunicativeApproachAfterthefour-monthexperiment，thestudentsfromtheEChavemadegreatprogressinlearningEnglishgrammarwithCommunicativeApproach．SoQuestionnaireI，includingtenquestions(No．1—7：opinions；No．8-10：suggestions)，isdesignedtogetsubjects’opinionsandsuggestionsaboutCommunicativeApproach．Table9isthesubjects’opinionsaboutCommunicativeApproach．Table9TheSubjects’OpinionsaboutCommunicativeApproachQuestionABCDNo．／Percentage118／43％20／48％4／9％O236／87％4／9％2／4％O320／48％10／24％10／24％2／4％415／36％13／31％9／21％5／12％515／36％25／60％2／4％0622／52％10／24％O716／38％21／50％5／12％0FromthestatisticsofTable9，wefindthatwhenthestudentsanSWereachquestion,nearly90％ofthemthinkmeyaresatisfiedwitlllearningEnglishgrammarinCommunicativeApproach．Thatistosay,CommunicativeApproachismoresuitableforthestudentsthantraditionalmethod．Furthermore，thestudentsCannotonlygethighermarksinthepost—test，butalsotlleircommunicativecompetenceandlinguisticcompetencearestrengthenedGrammargreatly．ThefollowingTable10isthesubjects’suggestionsaboutCommunicativeApproach．Table10TheSubjects’SuggestionsaboutCommunicativeApproachQuestionABCDNo．／Percentage828／67％4／9％3／8％7／16％95／12％12／28％20／48％5／12％1030／72％2饵％5／12％39 山东师范大学硕士学位论文IntheTable10，wecallseethatmostofthestudentsthinkCommunicativeApproachshouldbeappliedtotheteachinggrammarinChinesevocationalcollegeEnglishclasses．ItindicatesthatCommunicativeApproachisaneffectivemethodinthecurrentgrammarteaching．Ofcourse，67％ofthestudentsagreetoCommunicativeApproach，atthesametime，theyalsoputforwardtheirownsuggestions，suchasencouragingthestudentstoparticipatemoreactivitiesanddebates．About72％ofthemwanttoimprovetheircommunicativecompetenceandlinguisticcompetence．Moreover,thenumberofstudentswhot11i11ktheteachersmayadoptmoreflexibleandvariousmeanstoteachgrammaris25，occupying60％．3．7．4TheSubjects’AttitudestowardsTraditionalGrammarApproachQuestionnaireIIisdesignedtoshowthesubjects’attitudestowardstraditionalgrammarteachingafterCommunicativetheexperiment．Table1istheresultsfromthesubjectsintheEC．Table11TheSubjects’AttitudestowardsTraditionalGrammarApproachQuestionABCDNo．／PercentageNo．／percentagel2／4％4／9％lo／24％26／63％212／28％6／14％8／19％16／39％318／43％10／24％8／19％6／14％44／9％30／72％8／19％052／4％28／68％10／24％2／4％Table1revealsthat63％ofthestudentsthinktraditionalgrammarteachingoughttobeimproved．Andabout72％thinktraditionalapproachcannotadjusttothedemandsofcollegestudents．So，alloftheseillustratethatthecollegeteachersshouldchangetheoldmoduleinteachinggrammar,suchasteacher-centeredclassroomactivities，onlyteachinggrammaticalrules，lackingteacher-studentcommunicationandSOon．Therefore,68％ofthestudentsprefertoCommunicativeApproach，whichhelpsthemunderstanddullgrammaticalruleseasily,andstrengthentheircommunicativecompetenceandlinguisticcompetence．3．8SummaryTosumup，CommunicativeApproachisasuitableapproachtOteachgrammarinChina． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文ThestudentsintheExperimentalClassbecamemoreinterestedingrammarlessons，becauseallkindsofmeaningfulandauthenticactivitieswerecarriedout，henceraisingEnglish-learninginterestsofthestudentsisanessentialfactor．CommunicativeApproachjustCanmotivatetheinterestsofChinesestudents．TheresultoftheexperimentalsoindicatesthattheCommunicativeApproachisasuitableteachingapproachthatCanmeetstudents’needs．Onthecontrary,thetraditionalgrammarteachingisnolongersuitableforthecurrentEnglishteachingsituationduet0itsinefficiencyandineffectiveness．Andmanystudentstllinkthatthetraditionalgrammarlessonsareboring．OncethestudentslackinterestsinlearningEnglish,theycouldn’tlearnEnglishactively．Theirmarksareaffectedpossibly．TheresultsofthisexperimentcallshowthatthemarksoftheExperimentalClassalehigherthanthatoftheControlClass．4I 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter4HowtoTeachGrammarunderCommunicativeLanguageTeachingFromwhatwedidtheexperimentinthepreviouschapter,wecanseeitisveryessentialandvitalthatgrammaticalinstructionisindispensableforlanguageteachinganditshouldbetaughtinacommunicativemodel．Communicativelanguageteachingmeanslittlemorethananintegrationofgrammaticalandfunctionalteaching．AsLittlewood(2000)states，“Oneofthemostcharacteristicfeaturesofcommunicativelanguageteachingisthatitpayssystematicattentiontofunctionalaswellasstructuralaspectsoflanguage．”FortheEnglishlanguageteachersinChina,itisquitesignificanttomakeclearsomeviewsOilgrammarteachinginmindSOitwillbepossibletodeveloptheprocedureinEnglishlanguageclassroom．Toputtheseclearer,moredetailswillbeofferedinthefollowing．4．1BuildingCommunicativeEnvironmentforGrammarTeachingThepurposeofCommunicativeLanguageTeachingistotrainstudents’communicativecompetencethroughusingthelanguage．Sotheteacher’Smajorresponsibilityistocreateacommunicativeenvironmentinwhichapositiveatmosphereislikelytomakestudentsmotivatedandco—operated．4．1．1CreatingAuthenticandNon—authenticTextAutllenticteachingmaterialhasbeenthoughtindispensableinacommunication-orientedlanguageteaching,onthebasisofthepremisethatthelanguagetobepresentedintheclassroomshouldbeasauthenticaspossibleSOastor印resenttherealityofnativespeakeruse．Byauthenticitmeansthat“typesofL2inputsuchasnewspapers，maps，advertisements，cartoons，graphs，newsbroadcastsandweatherforecastthathavenotbeenspeciallywrittenforL2learners”(Wedel＆LiuRunqing,1995：291)．Ithasbeenalsobelievedthatauthenticmaterialgivesstudentsatasteofreallanguageinuse，andprovidesthemwithvalidlinguisticdatafortheirunconsciousacquisitionprocessestoworkon．IthastobemadeclearthatinChina,mostlyteachingmaterialisdirectedtotherelevantcourse．Suchtextbookshavebeenmakingtheshiftfromlessauthentictomoreauthenticinrecentyears．Theteacherfirstmakesuseofthetextbook，andthenhemayselectsomeothermaterialasasupplementaryforeffectiveteaching．Asfarastheteachinggrammarisconcemed，bothauthenticandnon·authenticmaterialscanofferstudents42 山东师范大学硕士学位论文allkindsoflanguageformsSOthattheycanbetterrelatetheformtothemeaninginlanguageuse．Thesematerialsalsocan，intheend，servethegoalofgrammaticalinstruction．Asforanon—authentictext,Chinesetraditionalteachingmaterialistypicalone，whichoftenconcentratesonthelanguagetheteacherswishtoteach．Anexampleisoftenusedtoteachthepresentperfecttense(fromJEFC3AByPEP)asfollows：“HowlonghaveyoulearnedEnglish?””Ihavelearneditfor4years．”Fromthisdialogue,wecannoticetheobviousfactthatwhenthespeakerasksaquestionheusesaparticulargrammarstructure．Andthefullanswerisusedinthesanlestructure．Thelanguageisnotauthentic．Conversationinlifebetweenpeopleisnotlikethat．Butitisusefulwhentheteacherplacesemphasisonthestructure．Itishelpfulforpresentingspecificlanguageitemseconomicallyandeffectively．Becauseauthentictextusedatfirstistoodifficulttomakelearnersfocusonthecode．Inteachinggrammar，inanotherword,whatismoreimportantistochoosebothauthenticandnon-authenticmaterials．Abetterwayisnon-authenticfirst，authenticIftheteacherbearsitinmindthat“communicativelanguageteachingpaysattentiontofunctionalaswellasstructuralaspectsoflanguage,combiningtheseintoamorefullycommunicativeview”(Littlewood，CommunicativeLanguageTeaching,1981：11)，heisboundtochoosebothofthematerialsasteachingdevices．Recentlythereappearsomeintegratedtextbookswhichcombinethetwomaterialsintoonebook．4．1．2IntegratingGrammarwithWholeMaterialIntheory,Englishteachingisanintegratedaction．Discourselearnedbystudentscannotbeseparatedbycomprehensionandexpression．Sostudentsareexpectedtofocusonthewholematerialratherthanseparatedforms．Thecommunicativeapproachimpliesthatlearnersshouldbeofferedmeaning-focusedactivities．Inordertograsprulesofdiscoursestudentsareledtomakesomeanalysis，whichincludesdrillsofmaterialbeinglearnt．Thesedrillsembodysomerulesandusages，commonly-usedexpressionsandlexicalmeanings．Insuchway,learningEnglishisintegratedwithanalysisthroughlanguageformsthatbelongtothewholediscourse．Consequently,theteachingconcentratesonboththeformandthemeaning．Asamatteroffact，earlycommunicativeapproachestoELTaretoensurelearnerscomprehendwhattheyare43 山东师范大学硕士学位论文learningintwomainways：1)Agradualprogressionfromform-focusedactivitytomeaning-focusedactivity，fromaccuracytofluency．2)Whilelearnerscarryoutameaning—focusedactivity,theteachernotesdownerrorsandusesthemassubsequentinputforaform—focusedactivity(Littlewood，1981)．Fromthesetwoways，wenoticethatbothoftheapproachesCOVerformandmeaning,accuracyandfluency．Inotherwords，thelanguageforminthiscaseisintegratedwiththeentirematerialbeinglearnt．Widdowson(1990：173)discussesCOmmunicativegrammaractivitieswhichhavebeenmentionedinthepreviouspart：communicativegrammaractivitiesaimtoreconcileandCOmbinelinguisticrepetition,withitsnecessaryfocusonform，andnon-linguisticpurpose，withitsnecessaryfocusonmeaning．Indoinglinguisticrepetition，learnersarerequiredtopracticeparticularstructuresSOastofacilitateunconsciousassimilation,whereasfornon-linguisticpurpose，learnersareengagedinactivitieswhichdeflectattentionawayfromthelinguisticformsbeingused．Whenusingthesecommunicativegrammarmaterials，teachersdesignthetasksSOthattheirsolutiondependsontherepeateduseofthelanguageitemsconcerned．Undersuchsituations，Widdowsonstatesthat“repetitionisafunctionofpurpose”．Learnerspracticelanguageintheprocessofsolvingthenon—linguisticproblem．Thusithasbeenclearthatthereisnoconflictbetweenformandmeaning,andthatthereisanecessity：inteachingpracticetointegratelanguageformswiththeentirematerialbeingused．4．1．3DesigningRelatedQuestionsThequestioningplaysanimportantroleinf．orei朗languageteachingandlearning．Thistechniqueisinterpretedasthewaystudentsareledtocomprehendwhattlleyaretaughtandstudentsobtainknowledgethroughrespondingtoquestionsbytheteacher．Inmodernterm，questionsarethebasicelementswithwhichtheteacherstimulatesstudents’thinkingandproduction．Ingeneral，thetypesofquestionstheteacheraskshavecloseconnectionwiththeCOntentofthematerialbeinglearnt．Generally,questionscanbecategorizedtothefollowingthreesorts：(1)Nexusquestions(questionsthatCanbeanswered‘yes’or‘no’)，(2)Alternativequestions(thatprovidetheresponderwithanalternativetoselectfrom)，(3)X-questions(wh-questions)．Still，thereismuchothertaxonomyofquestionsfromdifferentperspectives．Takingtherolesofthem44 山东师范大学硕士学位论文inlanguageclassroomintoaccount，thesequestionscanperformthefollowingpoints(ZhangZ．D．，1999b：310)：First,theycanbeusedtohetpstudentscomprehendandmakeclearwhattheyaretaught．Thistype西discriminationonewhichallowsstudentstohaveenoughtimeandfactorstoponderonandrecollectthelearnedmaterials．Thesecondiscontrolledtypeconcerningwithstudents’inductionofgrammaticalrulesandtransformationofsentencestructures．Speedandaccuracyareneededtopracticetherulesandmaterialbeinglearned．Thethirdtypeisusedtotrainstudents"skillsandperformance：Inpractice,itemphasizesspeedanswer&StudentsaresupposedtobeflexibletoapplytheteamedmaterialstOthestimulusofquestionsincommunication．Therefore,thequestionsarefoundeitherfact-basedorthought-based．Theformeronlyactsascheckingdevice,whoseroleistocheeklearners’comprehensionandseekforinformationprovidedbythematerials，whilethelatteroftenactsasathought·trainingtrigger．Generally,thesequestionshavevariousanswersbasedonlearners’experienceandknowledge．Ingrammarcommunicativeactivities，bothofthesequestionsareraisedbytheleamers’realityandusedtomakegrammaticalinstructionmorecommunicative．Theycanbeusedtotreatthelanguageformsandtohelplearnersdevelopthecommunicativecompetence．Theyprovideleamersmoreopportunitiestopracticelanguageformandtouselanguagemoreeffectively．JustaswhatEllissays，“MuchofresearchhasbeeninformedbytheassumptionthatL2learningwillbeenhancedifthequestionsresultinactivelearnerparticipationandmeaningnegotiation”(1994：589)．Fortheteacherintakingthispracticeinclassroom，heneedstoknowwhatheisattemptingtodowiththelearnerswhenheasksquestions．Alsoitoughttobeborneinhismindthatthequestionsraisedareconstructiveandcheerful．Sothelearners’opinionsandideasareelicited，respected，theirinterestsstimulatedandtheirmindschallenged．4．1．4IncreasingStudentsInvolvementIthasbeenbelievedthatlearnerswhoarehighly-motivatedCanlearnsuccessfully．Inlanguageclassroom，thestudentswithhighmotivationaremoreinvolvedinwhataretaughtandwhatalegoingtobedone．Whenstudentsareengaged，theyleambetterthanwhentheyarepartlyorwhollydisengaged．Sooneofthemaintasksforteachersistoprovokeinterestand45 山东师范大学硕士学位论文involvementinthesubject．Eventhoughtheyarenotultimatelyresponsiblefortheirstudents’motivation，teacherscanencourageorincreasethembywordanddeed(Harmer，1998：8)．Inordertoincreasestudentsinvolvedinwhattheyaretaught，firstofall，itisnecessarytoproduceapleasantandrelaxedclassroomatmosphere．Insuchanenvironment，studentsmayhavelowanxiety,goodself-confidenceandhighmotivation．Fromapointofviewofphysiology,emotionisthebrain’Sfilteringonoutsidestimulusthroughsenseorgans．AsJ．S．Krashen(1987)believesthatthreecomponentsofdrive，self-confidenceandworryconstituteemotion，linledriveandweakself-confidencewillproducealargernumberofworries，andthusemotionhasahi曲resentmentwhichrefusestoacceptalotofinputofinformation．Thisresultsininefficientleaning．TheAffectiveFilterHypothesesbyKrashen(1987)impliesthattheteachershouldincreaseasituationthatencouragesstudents’involvement．TheeffectivelanguageteacherissomeonewhoCanprovideinputandmakeitcomprehensibleinlowanxietysituation．IntheclassroomofEFL，whetherthemainfocusofthelessonisapieceofgrammarorwhetherthefocusisonreading,studentsalwaysneedtobeengaged．Anditistrueforanystagesofteachingsequence．Asindoingexercisesandactivities，theteacherpresentsinterestinganddifferentmaterials，offersvariousactivitiestostudentstopracticethelanguageformaswellaslanguageuse．Inshort,theteachermakeshislessonamused，moved，stimulatedevenchallenged，SOthatstudentsaresuretobeengagedinforthewholelessonduration．4．2MakingFormsTeachingMoreCommunicative4．2．1FormandMeaningCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisviewedeffectiveinhelpingstudentstogaincommunicativecompetencethroughthestructureaspectsofthelanguage．InadoptingtheapproachtoChineseclassroom，itmustbeconsideredthatlanguageteachingisdeeplyrootedinthephilosophy,cultureandbasicconceptsofeducation．ThelearninghabitandstyleofChineseleamersshouldbetakenintoaccount．Forexample，Chinesestudentsgenerallyshowgreatinterestsinlanguagestructureswhentheyarelearningalanguage，evenifwhentheyarelearningtheirnativelanguage．Therefore，inELTappropriategrammaranalysisisessentialandvocabularyworkandpatterndrillsarewaysofraisingthestudents’awarenessofthelanguage． 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Boththeformandthemeaningoflanguagehelpleamersgainlinguisticcompetence．Inordertomakeourteachingmorecommunicative，teachersneedtorelatetheteachinggrammarandpatterndrillstomeaninganduse．Inanotherword，languagestructuralpracticeshouldbecommunication·orientedandshouldbeusedforacommunicativepurpose．111eyshould‘"helptobridgethegapbetweenlinguisticandcommunicativecompetence”(Littlewood,1981：8)．HereistheexampleofferedbyLittlewood：Yourfriendmakesalotofsuggestions，butyoufeeltootiredtodoanything．P：Shallwegotothecinema?R?Ohno,Idon"tfeellikegoingtothecinema．P：Shallwehaveaswim?(orwhataboutaswim．then?)R?Ohno,Idon"tfeellikehavingasw／m．Structurally,thelearnerisherepracticingtheuseofthegerund．Functionally，heislearningwaysofmakingandrejectingsuggestions．ThisfunctionalaspectCallnaturallybeemphasizedbytheteacherashepresentstheactivity．Theseareso-called‘"pre-communication"’activities，theessentialfunctionofwhichistoservetopreparethelearnerforlatercommunication．TeachersCanorganizecontrolledpracticeoflanguageformwhichwouldhaveenabledtheleamerstocommunicatemoreeffectivelyorappropriately．Inshort，teachersshoulddesignsuchpracticeinclassroomthatmayencouragelearnerstofocuson(a)linguisticformstobepracticedand(b)meaningstobeconveyed．4．2．2AccuracyandFluencyThereisnodenyingthefactthatbothaccuracyandfluencyareessentialinEnglishteaching．Thatistosay,classroomteachingshouldfocusonbothaccuracyandfluency,andformandmeaningalike．AccordingtoLightbownandSpada(1993：105)，someclassroomdatafromanumberofstudiesoffersupportfortheview：．．乒删-focusedinstructionandcorrectivefeedbackprovidedwithinthecontextofacommunicativeprogramaremoreeffectiveinpromotingsecondlanguagelearningthanprogramswhicharelimitedtoanexclusiveemphasisonaccuracyontheonehandoronemphasisonfluencyontheother．ItistrueforChina’Steachingsituation．WhenEnglishteachingisdominatedbythegrammar-translationmethod，accuracyisemphasized．Studentsinsuchclassroomsareextremely47 山东师范大学硕士学位论文particularaboutlinguisticdetails．Theyhavefeltsatisfiedwiththeirlanguageproductionsuntilthecorrectanswersareprovided．Ontheoppositetheconcemraisedinrecentyearsthatfluencyistheteacher’Sassessmentofstudents’achievementandwhatstudentsareexpectedtohaveaftertheylearntEnglishforyears．ConsequentlyEnglishteaching，viewedasaprocessingtostudents’abilityoflanguageuse,andshouldfocusonbothaccuracyandfluency．Forbeginners，theyneedrigorouslanguagetrainingintheirclassesinordertoachieveaccuracy．Soonafterstudentshavemasteredthelanguageforms，theyoughttobegivenintensivefluencypractice．Then,ascontroliswithdrawn，thestudentscanusethelanguagemorefreely．Itshouldbenotedthataccuracyandfluencyarenotmutuallyexclusive，butareinterdependent，asWiddowson(1990：173)discussescommunicativegrammaractivitieswhichaimtoreconcileandcombine‘"linguisticrepetition,withitsnecessaryfocusonform，andnon-linguisticpurpose，withitsnecessaryfocusonmeaning．’’4．2．3ErrorCorrectionAsformodemlanguageteaching，correctionisemphasizedtobeassociatedwiththefocusontheformandaccuracy,oronthemeaningandfluency．Theobjectofusingcorrectionistohelpstudentstoclarifytheirunderstandingoftheconstructionandmeaningoflanguage．Clearlycorrectioninclassroomisamajorpartoftheteacher’Srole．Becauseitinvolvespointingoutothers’mistakesitshouldbehandledwithtactandconsiderationinordernottoupsetOurstudentsordenttheirconfidence．AccordingtoHarmer(1983)，classroomteachersmayhavetousesomecorrecttechniques．(1)Studentcorrectsstudent：theadvantageofusingthistechniqueisthatifanotherstudentcansupplythecorrectinformationitwillbegoodforthatstudent’Sself-esteem．(2)Teachercorrectsstudents：thisisusedwhenthestudentsaremix-upaboutwhatthecorrectresponseshouldbe．Inthatcase，itisneededforteacherstoexplaintheitemoflanguagewhichiscausingthemistake．Harmeralsoadds，anotherpossiblecorrectionisusedforpracticeactivitiesattheimmediatecreativitystage．Itinvolvesshowingthestudentthatsomethingiswrong，butnotaskingforrepetition．Whenstudentsareinvolvedinsuchactivities，weaskthemtoproducesentencesoftheirownusingthenewlanguage．48 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Fromtheperspectiveofpedagogy,classroomcorrectionisnotonlyimportant，butthatthestudentsexpectit,evenaftercommunicativeactivities．Forexample，whenstudentsareinvolvedinimmediatecreativity,suchasasking-answeringquestioninpairs，teachersalsoneedtomakecorrection，butitshouldbe“gentle"’．Gentlecorrectioninvolvesshowingstudentsthatamistakehasbeenmade，butnotaskingforrepetition,asintheaccuratereproductionstage．Whereas，byusing“gentlecorrection"’theteacherjustsayslike“well,that0notquiteright．．．’’Wedon’tsay‘"he90ed⋯：。wesay“wenf”．Insuchcases，undoubtedly，agoodteacherknowsitwellthatthiskindofcorrectionwillnotseriouslydamagetheatmosphereofpairworkorothercommunicativepractice．Inaword，correctionmaybeusedinmanytactfulwaysforgettingstudentstopracticelanguagebothinthestageofusingaccuratelanguageforms，andthestageofappropriatelanguageuseinclassroom．4．3EffectiveCommunicativeGrammarActivitiesinLanguageClassroom4．3．1TheNatureofCommunicativeActivitiesCommunicativeLanguageTeachingisbestconsideredanapproachratherthanamethod(Richards＆Rodgers，1986)．Althoughatthelevelofdesignandprocedurethereisgreaterroomforindividualinterpretationandvariationthanothermethodspermit，generallycommunicativeactivitiesinclassroomwillhavesomecharacteristicsasfollows：(1)Theyinvolveusinglanguageforpurpose．(2)Theycreateadesiretocommunicate．(3)Theyencouragestudentstobecreativeandcontributetheirideas．(4)Theyfocusonthemessageandstudentsconcentrateon‘what’theyalesayingratherthan‘how’theyalesayingit．(5)Thestudentsdeterminewhattheywanttosayorwrite．Soingrammarteaching,evenwhenweadoptcommunicativeapproachesintoourclassroomweoftenstarttheactivitiesinatraditionalway．Ingeneral，wedealwithitasthefollowingpoints：(I)Weintroducestudentstonewpatternsofclassroominteraction．(2)Wegraduallyintroducequasicommunicativeactivities．49 山东师范大学硕士学位论文(3)Weintegratenewwaysofworkingintheclassroomwithcommunicativetasks．Hereinthispartofcommunicativeactivitiesdesignedforgrammaticalinstruction，anemphasisisonlyonthefollowingactivitiesasanillustrationtoshowthatbothrulesofgrammarandrulesofuseareindispensableinlanguageteaching．Withouteitherofthem，thecounterpartwillbeuseless．Theyarecomplementaryinlanguageteaching．4．3．2Problem-solvingActivitiesTheretheemphasisison‘solving’theproblemorreachadecisionratherthanlearninglanguageform．Problem-solvingactivitiesencouragestudentstotalktogethertofindasolutiontoproblems．Intheseactivities，learnersmustnotonlyanalyzeinformation,butalsoargue，justifyandpersuade，inordertoreachacoillmondecision．Eventhoughitisatypicalactivityatthecommunicativeendoflanguageteachingcontinuum，wealsobeginitbycontrolledpractice．Inthefollowingexample，readingleadsintogrammarworkwhichfocusesonsomeofthelanguagewhichhavebeenjustorrecentlylearned．StepI：Theteacherasksstudentstoreadthepassagebellow．／tisaboutten0"clockinthemorninginJuly．andyouhavejustcrashedinasmallaeroplaneintheSonoradesertinNorthernMexico．Thepilotandco-pilotaredeadandtheaeroplaneiSaburnt-outshell．OneofthepassengersiSinjured．Theaeroplanehadnoradio，andthesurvivorsthinkthattheywereabout100kilometersoffcoursewhentheycrashedJustbeforethecrashthepilottoldthepassengersthattheywere120kilometerssouthofasmallminingcamp．Fromexperienceyouknow,thatdaytimetemperaturescanreach43Centigradeandnight-timetemperaturesreachfreezing．Allthepassengersaredressedinlightclothes．Theareaisflatandaridasfa，．astheeyecanseeStep2：StudentsareaskedtoanSWersomequestionsaboutwhathappened，formanykeywordsinthepassagehavebeenlearned，aslike：aeroplanecrashpilotpassengerssurvivoretc．Step3：Theteachershowsstudentsalistofitemsthatmaybehelpfulforthem．Probablytheteacherhelpsstudentsunderstandallthemeaningofthewordsbyvariousways．50Thefollowingisthelistthattheteachershows： 山东师范大学硕士学位论文----Flashlightwithfourbatteries—妇出勋谵-----Detailedpilot"schartofthearea-"Largeplasticponcho——彳砼s撕所P聆ftomeasurebloodpressure----Loaded45pistol—勖圮redandwhiteparachute—圣0nleofl000salttablets—勖增quartofwaterperperson—伽P即驴ofsunglassesperperson—勖地overcoatperperson----OnepocketmirrorNowdothefollowing：(1)Individuallywritedownalistofthesevenmostimportantitemsonthislisttoensure(2)Agreewiththeothermembersofthegroupwhattheseitemsare．Step4：Studentsareputintogroups．Step5：Studentsmustfollowtheinstructionstoworkouthowtosurvivethisdesertsituation．Step6：Theteachergives，afterdecisionscomeout，thefeedbackbycheckingthesolutions．Oneproposedsolutionisasfollows：thesevenimportantitemsarethemirror,theflashlight，onequartofwaterperperson,theplasticponcho，sunglasses，overcoatsandaparachute．Walkingisinadvisableowingtotheheat，SOasignalingmirror(bYda”andflashlight(bynight)willbeuseful．TheparachuteCallbeusedforshelterandasasignforsearchingplanes．Sun-glassesCanpreventblindnessandovercoatskeeppeoplewarminthecolddesertni曲ts．Thewaterisclearlyimportant，andtheplasticponchocallbeusedtocreatemorewater．4．3．3Question—and-AnswerActivities 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Thiskindofactivitiesisbasedontheclassroomsituationorlearner’Slikesordislikes，thereisoneexample：Q：WhereiSthecat?A：lttsunderthetable．Q?Whereisthetable?47It台nexttOthewindow．Thisistypicalfour-phrasedrillsinwhichtheteacherasksquestions，andthelearnersanswerormakestatementsaboutthefactswhicharealreadyknowntoeverybody．Inanotherexample，itisseenusefulforpracticeandrevisionofspecificquestionformsandsuccessfulinusingforquickfive-minutesessionsafterthesequestionshavebeenintroducedinapreviousclass．Q?What"syourfavoritefood?Q：Canyoucookit?47Yes。Ican．Ofcoursebesidesthefour-phrasedrills，therearemanyothermixedquestion-and-answerones，whichhavemorequestionsandaremoredifficult．Asaresultthesedrillsaremoresuitableforthelearnersofhigherlevel．4．3．4DiscussionandDebateDiscussionanddebatealeactivitieswhichprovokesspontaneousfluentlanguageusebylearnersexchangingtheiropinions．Theyaretechniquesconductivetopromotestudents’communicativecompetence．However,itislikelytobesuccessfulforupper-intermediateoradvancedlevellearners．Besidesthistheteachermaymakesomevariationbystartingitwithsomecontrolledpractice，andthenleadtheseworkintomorecommunicativeactivities．Hereisanexample：First，theteachertellsstudentstowritedownthesentencehereads．Howdoyouthinksmokinginpubficplaces?(Possibly，it’Sthefocusofthetextthathasjustbeenlearned．)52Second，theteachertellsstudentstorewritethesentencetosuittheirideas．e．g．IthinksmoMnginpubficplacesshouldbebannedbecauseifisharmful加r 山东师范大学硕士学位论文non-smokers．1t"s磊扭rightsforanyonetodecidewherehesmokes．Thebanonsmokinginpublicplacesistakentooseriously．Third，theteacherreadsorwritessomeofthesentences，givingstudentsadequatetimetowritetheirowns．Fourth，theteacheraskssomestudentstoreadtheirwritingandwritesomewhicharecontroversialastopicsofdiscussionontheblackboard．Fifth,forthenextstep，theteacherdividesstudentsintogroups(4or5foreachgroup)，lettingthemdogroupworkbydiscussingthem．Lastly,whenfmishingdoingthis，everygrouphasaspokesmantomakeanliIli-speechonthetopic．Discussionactivitiesareanimportantpartofmanylessons．Astudentreactstosomethingthatissaid，anotherstudentjoinsin．Ofcourse，whatistobediscussedordebatedshouldbedealtwithfirstbeforestudentsusethelanguageformstoconveytheiropinions．4．3．5Role—playRole-playactivitiesarethosewherestudentsareaskedtoimaginewhattheyareindifferentsituationsandactaccordingly．Role—playisaprocess-orientedgrouporpairtechnique，whichiseffectivetopracticedoingthingsinthetargetlanguage．Throughrole-play，theteachermayassessstudents’competence．Suchactivitiesoftenoccurinclassroomforlessadvancedstudents，e．g．fast—yearcollegestudents．Onceinawhile，incollege’Sclassroomwedothiskindofrole-play,whichisbasedonthetextstudentshavejustread．Hereisanexample：First，studentsreadthetext：ADelightfu，VillageG∞7icktSa&lightfullyunspoiledvillagesurroundedbyfieldsandwoodsatthemouthofariver．Yetit"sonlyashortbusridej序omtheoldcityofHarburywithitsfactories，industry,andheavytraffic．Thecountrysidearoundthevillageisincrediblygreen，withfertilefields,olivegroves，andtalltrees．Throughthevillageflowsawide，clearriver,alongthebanksofwhichareafleetoffishingboats．Upstreamtheriverisbroaderandshallowerandisthehomeofagreatvarietyofbirdsandotherwildlife．Alongthebanksoftheriveryoucanglimpsewildduckspeepingshyly53 山东师范大学硕士学位论文fromtheundergrowth．Ifyouareanature·lover,thewalkthroughthecountrysidetOLakeKellymore担wonderfulandasittakeslessthananhollr．itiswellworththeeffort．Thisbiginlandlakeislovelyforswimming．Theftshing括saidtObeexcellent；though1"renopersonalexperienceofthis．Second，questioningbasedonitOCCURS．(1)Whereisthevillage?(2)Whatisaroundthevillage?(3)Whatcallpeoplefindalongthefiverthroughthevillage?(4)Whyshouldanature-lovervisitLakeKellymore?(5)Whatisthebeachlike?(6)CanyouvisualizethesceneoftraditionalEn百ishvillage?etc．Third，whilestudentsareanswering，theteacherwritesthekeywordsontheblackboard：·_-。。——atthemouthofariver·-_——theincrediblygreencountryside—peetoffishingboats．agreatvarietyofbirdsandotherwildlife——lovelyforswimmingandexcellentforfishing··__—’amagnificentstretchofpaleyellowsandFourth，letoneortwostudentsretellthetextusingthesekeywordsbeforetheireye．Vitth,itcomestoarole·playactivitystage．Theteachermaysaythistostudents．Well，nextlet’sdopairwork．SupposeyouareaclerkatthetravelagencyoftheCityofHarburyandyourpartnerisaresidentinthecityandheistiredoftheheavytrafficandindustrialpollmionandhopestospendhis／herholidayclosetonature．NowyouarerecommendingvillageofGarricktohim／her．Lastly,twoorthreepairsbyvolunteeronebyonepresenttherotesbeforetheclassandtheteachergivesthefeedback．4．4RolesofTeachersandStudentsinTeachingGrammarinCommunicativeApproach4．4．1TheRoleofTeachersSeveralrolesareassumedforteachersinCommunicativeApproach．BreenandCandlin 山东师范大学硕士学位论文describeteacherrolesinthefollowingterms：Theteacherhastwomainroles：thefirstroleistofacilitatethecommunicationprocessbetweenanparticipantsintheclassroom．andbetweentheseparticipantsandthevariousactivitiesandtexts．Thesecondroleistoactasanindependentparticipantwithinthelearning-teachinggroup．Thelaterroleiscloselyrelatedtotheobjectivesofthefirstroleandarisesfromit．Theserolesimplyasetofsecondaryrolesfortheteacher；,first，asanorganizerofresourcesandaSaresourcehimself,secondasaguidewithintheclassroomproceduresandactivities⋯Athjrdrolefortheteacheristhatofresearcherandlearner,wi廿1muchtocontributeintermsofappropriateknowledgeandabilities，actualandobservedexperienceofthenatureoflearningandorganizationalcapacitiesOtherrolesassumedforteachersareneedsanalyst，counselor,andgroupprocessmanager．NeedsanalystTheCommunicativeApproachteacherassumesaresponsibilityfordeterminingandrespondingtolearnerlanguageneeds．Thismaybedoneinformallyandpersonallythroughone-to—onesessionswithstudents，inwhichtheteachertalksthroughsuchissuesasthestudent’Sperceptionofhisorherlearningstyle,learningassets，andlearninggoals．Itmaybedoneformallythroughadministeringaneedsassessmentinstrument．Typically,suchformalassessmentscontainitemsthatattempttodetermineallindividual’Smotivationforstudyingthelanguage．CounselorInthisrole，theteacherisexpectedtoexemplifyaneffectivecommunicatorseekingtomaximizethemeshingofspeakerintentionandhearerinterpretation，throughtheuseofparaphrase，confirmation，andfeedback．GroupprocessmanagerCommunicativeApproachproceduresoftenrequireteacherstoacquirelessteacher-centeredclassroommanagementskills．Itistheteacher’Sresponsibilitytoorganizetheclassroomasasettingforcommunicationandcommunicativeactivities．Guidelinesforclassroompracticesuggestthatduringallactivitytheteachermonitors，encourages，andsuppressestheinclinationtosupplygapsinlexis，grammar，andstrategybutnotessuchgapsforlatercommentaryandcommunicativepractice．Attheconclusionofgroupactivities，theteacherleadsinthedebriefing55 山东师范大学硕士学位论文oftheactivity,pointingoutalternativesandextensionsandassistinggroupsinself-correctiondiscussion．Criticshavepointedout，however，thatnon-nativeteachersmayfeellessthancomfortableaboutsuchprocedureswithoutspecialtraining．ThefocusonfluencyandcomprehensibilityinCommunicativeApproachmaycauseanxietyamongteachersaccustomedtoseeingerrorsuppressionandcorrectionsasthemajorinstructionalresponsibility,andwhoseetheirprimaryfunctionaspreparinglearnerstotakestandardizedorotherkindsoftests．Acontinuingteacherconcernhasbeenthepossibledeleteriouseffectinpairorgroupworkofimperfectmodelingandstudenterror．Althoughthisissueisfarfromresolved，itisinterestingtonotethatrecentresearchfindingssuggestthat‘‘datacontradictsthenotionthatotherlearnersarenotgoodconversationalpartnerbecausetheycan’tprovideaccurateinputwhenitissolicited"’(Porter,1983)．4．4．2TheRoleofStudentsTheemphasisinCommunicativeApproachontheprocessesofcommunication,ratherthanmasteryoflanguageforms，leadstodifferentrolesforstudentsfromthosefoundintraditionalforei班languageclassrooms．BreenandCandlindescribethestudent’Sroleinthefollowingterms：Theroleofstudentasnegotiator--betweentheself,thelearningprocess，andtheobjectoflearning---emergesfromandinteractswiththeroleofjointnegotiatorwithinthegroupandwithintheclassroomproceduresandactivitieswhichthegroupundertakes．Theimplicationforthestudentisthatheshouldcontributeasmuchashegains，andtherebylearninaninterdependentway．Thereisthusanacknowledgmentthatstudentsbringpreconceptionsofwhatteachingandlearningshouldbelike．Theseconstitutea“set”forlearning，whichwhenunrealizedCanleadtostudentconfusionandresentment(Henner—StanchinaandRiley,1978)．Oftenthereisnotext,grammarrulesarenotpresented，classroomarrangementisnonstandard，studentsareexpectedtointeractprimarilywitheachotherratherthanwiththeteacher，andcorrectionoferrorsmaybeabsentorinfrequent．Thecooperative(ratherthanindividualistic)approachtoleamingstressedinCommunicativeApproachmaylikewisebeunfamiliartostudents．CommunicativeApproachmethodologistsconsequentlyrecommendthatstudentslearntoseethatfailedcommunicationisajointresponsibilityandnotthefaultofspeakerorlistener．Similarly，successfulcommunication56 山东师范大学硕士学位论文isallaccomplishmentjointlyachievedandacknowledged．InthischapterwehaveseenanumberofactivitiesthroughwhichtheteacherrelateslanguageformtolanguageuseremphasizingthegrammarteachingCannotbeseparatedfromEnglishlanguageteaching．Anditiswoahwhiletopointoutthatgrammarteachingshouldnotbetaughtinisolation，butintendedtobeameanstocommunicativecompetence．Inconsideringwhatkindsofactivitiesteachersshouldbearitinmindthatintroducingcommunicativeapproachesintoourclassroomdoesnotmeantherejectionofpreviouspracticetotally．Someaspectssuchasgrammarandvocabularystillremainimportant,although0111"approachtothosemaybecomemoreconcernedwithhowthelanguageisusedthanwithteachingof：rulesonlyfortheirsake．Ithasbeenseenthattheessenceofthecommunicativeapproachisachangeofemphasisinteachingmethodology,thatis，makingashiftfromform—focusedteachingtomeaning-focusedone．57 山东师范大学硕士学位论文ConclusionWithoutgrammar，wordshangtogetherwithoutanyrealmeaningorsense．Inordertobeabletospeakalanguagetosomedegreeofproficiencyandtobeabletosaywhatpeoplereallywanttosay,somegrammaticalknowledgemustbegrasped．Byteachinggrammartheteachersnotonlygivethestudentsthemeanstoexpressthemselves，butalsofulfilltheirexpectationsofwhatlearningaforei盟languageinvolves．Butlearninggrammaticalruleswelldoesn’tmeanthecapacityofsuccessfulcommunication．Therearenomiraclesonthewaytoleamalanguage．Nomatterhowstudentsaretaughtgrammaticalconcepts，syntacticconstructionsandstylisticdevices，orlanguageconventionsandeditingconcepts，theywillnotautomaticallymakeuseoftheseintheirtalking．Whatthisthesisintendstofocusonishowtoimprovevocationalcollegestudents’grammaticalcompetenceandlinguisticcompetencethroughcommunicativeactivities．Formanyyears，wehavefounditdifficulttoenablethestudentstocommunicatefreelyandmakethemexpresstheirideasclearly．Tolearnalanguageistolearnhowtocommunicateinthetargetlanguage．Butindailycommunicationwithnativespeakers，manyChineselearnersofEnglishfailtouseEnglishtactfullyorappropriately．BasedonthetheoryoftheCommunicativeApproach,thisthesiscomparestheCommunicativeApproachandthetraditionalteachingmethods．Itisconcludedthatinforeignlanguageteaching，teachersmusttransfertheirfocusfromteachingstudentsknowledgetodevelopingstudents’communicativeability．InordertoprovetheeffectoftheCommunicativeApproach，theauthorofthethesismakesanexperimentonherownclasses．Afteronesemester’Steachingpractice，thecommunicativeapproachisprovedtoasuitableandsuccessfulteachingapproachatvocationalcolleges．Firstly，thestudents’interestinlearningEnglishhasbeenimproved．EventhosewholackinterestinEnglishinthepasthavebecomeveryactiveintheclassroomactivities．Secondly,Englishgrammarteachingisnolongerdullandmonotonous，itturnsouttoberefreshingandeffective．Learner-centeredandtask·basedcommunicativeactivitiesstimulatestudents’participationandinteractioninclass，studentsbecomedynamicandcreativeintheprocessoflearning．Thirdly,mostimportantly,students’linguisticcompetencehasbeenclearlyimproved．TheclassroomcommunicativeactivitiescancreateanaturalEnglishspeakingenvironmentandestablisharealcommunicativecontexttoimprovestudents’languageskillsandlinguisticcompetence．58 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Undoubtedly，thereisnosinglecorrectwaytoteachlanguage．Uptonow，CLThasmadeunparalleledcontributiontotheforeignlanguageteaching．Yetithasdisadvantages．WhenlearnersalepursuingthemeaninganduseofEnglish，theyoftenneglecttheformsofEnglish．Besides，thingshavebeenchangingandnewproblemsarisingconstantly．It’sadutyforteacherstoseekbetterteachingmethodsinaccordancewithparticularconditions．59 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Appendix1Pre．test姓名：班级：——分数：单项选择说明：本套题共50个小题，每小题2分，要求考生从每小题后的四个答案中选出一个最恰当的。答错不扣分，考试时间为50分钟。1．Herdoctorsaid：“workSOhard”．A．Stop2．--Sindy,B．Don’tC．Catl’tD．Notobehereat8O’clock．一Noproblem．A．issureB．issurethatC．willbesureD．besure3．一whenyoucrosstheroad，Jack．--Yes，Mum．A．DocareB．CareC．DobecarefulD．Tobecareful4．一11imthesecret，willyou?州o，1won’t．A．Don’ttellB．NottotellC．NottellingD．Notelling5．一inbed．一帅y?一It’Sbadforyoureyes．A．NottoreadB．Don’treadC．Don’ttoreadD．Notread6．一-MrsSmith，Ineedtogooutforanimportantcase．一yourchild．We’11lookafterhim．A．NottoworryaboutB．Don’tworryaboutC．NotworryforD．Don’tworrywith7．一-Iamverythirty．··--Whyhaveadrink?A．notweB．donotweC．don’tweD．notto8．一YbUlookrathertired．stoppingtohavearest? 山东师范大学硕士学位论文一A11right．A．WhynotB．HowaboutC．Whynotto9．——tellalie．A．HardlyB．NotC．No10．．-Peter!．．Y宅s?D．Whydon’tD．Never-Pleaselookoutside．Lookattheblackboard．A．notB．don’tC．arell’tD．can’t11．--When—thiskindofcomputers?-Lastyear．A．did；USeB．was；usedC．is；USedD．are；USed12．一Haveyoumovedintothenewflat?—Notyet．TheloomA．hasbeenpaintedB．ispaintedC．paintsD．isbeingpainted13．-Hurryup，orthetickets——9utbythetimeWegetthere．一Ok．I"mcoming．A．willhavesoldB．willsellC．havesoldD．willhavebeensold14．一C觚youdowiththatmatter?-Ipromisethatmatterwill——．—．——．——．A．betakencareB．betakencareofC．takeCareD．takecareof15．．．Howabouttheoffer?-I——tellminutestodecidewhetherlshouldrejecttheoffer．A．gaveB．WasgivenC．WasgivingD．hadgivenl6．一C觚suchathing——happeningagain?‘-No，notagain．A．preventfromB．preventedfromC．bepreventedfromD．topreventfrom17．一·Whendidyoubuythisbike?一Itlastyear．A．boughtB．hasbeenboughtC．wasboughtD．hadbeenbought 山东师范大学硕士学位论文18．--Thewindowisdirty．一Iknow．Itforweeks．A．hasn’tcleanedB．didn’tcleanC．wasn’tclcanedD．hasn’tbeencleaned19．一Didyouseethehousethat——————byfirelastyear?一Yes，it’Sterrible．A．wasdestroyingB．destroyedC．woulddestroyD．wasdestroyed20．一WhyCan’tyouuseyourbike?一ICan’tusemybikebecauseit．A．isrepairingB．isbeingrepairedC．willrepairD．Wasrepairing21．一Didyouasktheguard——happened?o仇，hetoldmeall——heknew．A．what；thatB．what；whatC．which；whichD．that；that22．一Is——someGermanfriendsvisitedlastweek?地，itis．A．thisschoolwhereB．thisschooloneC．thistheschoolD．thisschool23．-Isthereanyoneinyourclass一托援Lilyis．familyisinthecity．A．whoseB．whichC．who’SD．who24．一C强youlendmethebook—ok．nOproblem．A．whichyoutalkedC．aboutthatyoutalked25．--Doyouknowthemall舶．He’SJack．A．thatIspokeC．towhoIspoke26．一-Doyouknowthereason—He’soverslept．66theotherday?B．thatyoutalkedD．youtalkedabout?B．IspoketoD．whomIspokehewaslate? 山东师范大学硕士学位论文A．forwhichB．forwhatC．whichD．that27．一Isthisbook——lboughtforyouthedaybeforeyesterday7．一协÷itis，A．whichB．thatC．×D．theone28．．—Pleasepassmethedictionary—coverismadeofplastics．--Hereyouare．A．whoseB．ofwhidlC．tllatD．which29．一Canyouthinkoutasituation—thisidiomcailbeused?-IthinkIcan．A．whichB．thatC．withwhichD．where30．一Isthereanything——toyou9—NO．A．thatisbelongedB．thatbelongsC．thatbelongD．whichbelongs31．一Whydidn’tSmithjointheInternationalStudentsOrganization?····Heobjectedtodues．A．wechargeB．1lSchargeC．chargeD．oBrcharging32．一Imustapologizefor—aheadoftime．-Ⅲlatisallright．A．1ettingyounotknowB．notlettingyouknowC．1ettingyouknownotD．1ettingnotyouknow33．-Couldyoufindsomeone-IthinkICan．A．formetoplaytenniswithB．formetoplaytennisC．playtenniswithD．playingtenniswith34．一WouldyoubeSOkind———————meyourbicycle?-I’dloveto．A．astoborrowB．tolendingC．astolendD．tolend35．一一Mybabyhasaninfection．～Didthedoctorfinditdifficult?。67 山东师范大学硕士学位论文A．intreatingB．treatingC．fortreatingD．totreat36．--Whywastheofficialmeetingcalled?一newomcers．A．SelectB．SelectingC．ToselectD．Forselecting37．‘"Wemustkeepasecretofthethings——here"’，thegeneralsaid，atthemailinchargeoftheinformationoffice．A．discussed，staredseriouslyB．beingdiscussed，seriouslystatingC．tobediscussed．seriouslystared38．-Fatherisasleep．Wouldyoumind廿1eTV，Jim?矗]N0ta士a11．I’1ldoitfightaway．A．turningdownB．toturnonC．turningup39．一Whydoesshealwaysaskyouforhelp?一慨isnooneelse——，isthere?A．whototumtoB．shecanturntoC．forwhomtoturntoD．forhertotum40．一DidJackcomebackearlylastnight?j恼．ItWasnotyeteighto’clockhearrivedhome．A．beforeB．whenC．thatD．until41．一Ifhe．hethatfood．--LuckilyheWassenttothehospitalimmediately．A．Waswarned：wouldnottakeB．hadbeenwarned；wouldnothavetakenC．woddbewarned：hadnottakenD．wouldhavebeenwarned；hadnottaken42．一Don’tyoutllinkitnecessarythathe——toMiamibuttoNewYork?·一Iagree，buttheproblemisA．willnotbesent；thatC．shouldnotbesent；what43．·-HaveyoueverbeentoBeijing?68hehasrefusedto．B．notbesent；thatD．shouldnotsend；what 山东师范大学硕士学位论文一No，but1wishI—一A．haveB．willC．doD．had44．～Ⅵmatwillyoudoduringthesummerholiday?一Idon’tknow,butit’Shightime——something．A．I"mdecidingB．I"lldecideC．IdecidedD．Idecide45．-一Wherehaveyoubeen?一Igotcaughtintraffic；otherwisesooner．A．1wouldbehereB．IhavebeenhereC．IhadbeenhereD．1wouldhavebeenhere46．-一Yourauntanduncleareleavingtomorrowafternoon．-1wouldrathermey——onanearlytrain．A．1eRB．1eaveC．wouldleaveD．hadleft47．一Sorryforhavingkeptyouwaiting．Butforthetrafiicjam，I20minutesearlier．一-Nevermind．Ihaven’tbeenwaitingthatlong．A．arrivedB．wouldarriveC．wouldhavearrivedD．hadarrived48．一-Yoursisterreallyworkedhardonherscienceprojectduringtheslimmer．～Yes，otherwiseshetllefirstplaceinthecompetitionA．wouldhavewonB．didn’tC．wouldn’thavewonD．won49．··Mr．BrownleftforLondonlongago．一That，Sapity．1wish—A．Imeethim．B．I’11havemethimC．IhadmethimD．I，dmeethim50．一Helencouldn’tgotoFranceaftera11．一nat’Stoobad，I"msureshewouldhaveenjoyeditif一．A．she’sgoneB．she’11goC．she’dgoneD．she’dgo 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Appendix2姓名：单项选择Post-test班级：分数：说明：本套题共50个小题，每小题2分，要求考生从每小题后的四个答案中选出一个最恰当的。答错不扣分，考试时间为50分钟。1．Whydon"t,youjoinUSinthegame?A．WhatnotB．WhynotC．WhytoD．Howto2．一goforthebookalone，MsZhang．一Ok．A．Let’SB．LetmeC．LetUSD．Allow3．-JoIlll，readthetextforUS，一Y|es，1will．A．doesheB．willhe4．一Let’Sdoitatonce，一-Noproblem．f，口C．doyouD．willyouA．shallweB．willyouC．doWeD．doyou5．一LetUSdoitatonce，·-Noproblem．A．shallweB．willyouC．doweD．doyou6．一Ifyouaretired，—————arest．-一Thankyou．I锄fine。A．haveB．havingC．tohaveD．had7．一mego．Itisveryimportantforme．····Sorry．A．DoletB．1etdoC．Doinglet8．一-Whydoyoudislikehim7．．Heisnothonest。believehim。A．NotB．Don’tC．Tonot70D．Todo1etD．Notto 9．一Ifyouwanttostay,letmeknow，7．-Ok．A．willyouB．shallweC．doyou10．．．MissZhang,Ianlsorryforbeinglate．-Nevercomelateagain,．．．3A．willyouB．won’tC．doyouD．doweD．doeshe11．一Howlong——atthisjob?-Since1990．A．wereyouemployedB．haveyoubeenemployedC．hadyoubeenemployedD．willyoubeemployed12．．．Whathappenedtothepricelessworksofalt7．．．。．．．．．．．．．．．．．-．A．皿cyweredestroyedintheearthquakeB．TIlcearthquakewasdestroyingthemC．TheydestroyedintheearthquakeD．Theearthquakedestroyedthem13．刑sisTed’sphoto．Wemisshimalot．．-Y船．Hetryingtosaveachildintheearthquake．__-●________--_-一A．killedB．iskilledC．waskilledD．WaSkilling14．一Ihopethefactorywillbefine．一Hundredsofjobs———————ifthefactorycloses．A．10seB．willbelostC．alelostD．willlose15．一一Whataletheydoinghere．—Anewcinema——here．Theyhopetofinishitnextmonth。A．willbebuiltB．iSbuiltC。hasbeenbuiRD．isbeingbuilt16．～CanIenterthebuilding?一-Nopermissionhasforanybodytoenterthebuilding．A．beengivenB．givenC．togiveD．begiven17．．．twoticketsforthenewplayattheGrandTheatreonSaturday．Shallwegoandseeit7I 山东师范大学硕士学位论文together?--Yes，ofcourse．A．TheyhavebeengivenC．IamgivenB．IhavebeengivenD．Theyhavegiventome18．-一Whataretheydoin97．．Anewhouseatthecorneroftheroad．A．isbuildingB．isbeingbuiltC．beenbuiltD．bebuilding19．-Howisthethinggoingon?一It——————whethershewillgetherworkinthehospital．A．hasn’tbeendecidedB．isn’tdecidingC．doesn’tdecideD．hasn’tdecided20．一Isthepenyours?一TIlepen——me．Itishers．A．isn’tbelongtoB．wasn’tbelongtoC．doesn’tbelongtoD．didn’tbelongto21．·一Howdoyoulikethebook?一It’Squitedifferentfrom——Ireadlastmonth．A．t11atB．whichC．theoneD．theonewhat22．一Isitinthatfactory——“RedFlag"’carsareproduced?一Yes．itiS．A．inwhichB．whereC．whichD．that23．．．Doyouknowthetownatall?一No，thisisthefirsttimeI———————here．A．wasB．havebeenC．cameD．anlcoming24．一HaveyoueverbeentoRome?一-No，butthat’Sthecity_A．whereImostliketovisitC．whichIliketovisitmostB．I’dmostliketovisitD．whereI’dlikemosttovisit25．一Doyouknowthegirl————necklacehasbeenstolen?一She’SMary,myfriend．72 A．herB．whichC．thatD．whose26．一Whoistheboyisspeakingthere?-He’smymanager．A．whomB．whichC．thatD．who27．一Canyoulendmethenovel——theotherday7．--Noproblem．A．thatyoutalkedB．youtalkedaboutitC．whichyoutalkedwithD．youtalkedabout28．-Isthisthefactory州o，itisn’t．youvisitedtheotherda)r?A．thatB．whereC．inwhichD．theone29．一Areyouinterestedinthe伍1mWesawlastnight"7．二No．it’sboring．A．thatB．whyC．whereD．how30．．．Doyouknowtheauthor——．——————wroteTheOldManandTheSea?一Yes，Ido．A．whichB．whenC．whoD．whose31．．．Whatareyougoingtodothismorning?一I"mthinkingoI—tovisitmyaunt．A．goB．goingC．havinggoneD·mygoing32，一Haveyoudecidedwhen—j舶．tomorrowmorning．A。toleaveB，tobeleaveC．willyouleaveD．areyouleaving33．一Thereisaholeinyourbag．一IknowIanlgoingtohaveit?A．melldB．mendingC．mendedD．tobemended34．一Doyouknowtheboy—underthebiggee?一Yes．He’sJerry．A．1ayB．1ainC．1ayingD．1ying73 山东师范大学硕士学位论文_—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————一35．．．Whatdoyouthinkofthebook?—．Oh，excellent．Itisworth————asecondtime．A．toreadB．tobereadC．readingD．beingread36．．．Goodmorning．CanIhelpyou?一I"dliketohavethispackage———Jmadam．A．beweighedB．tobeweighedC．toweighD．weighed37．-yowcoatatonce．Wemusthurry．一一I"mcoming．A．weal"B．wearingC．putonD．puttingon38．—-Thelightintheofficeisstillon。--Oh,Iforgot．A．turningitoffB．turnitoffC．toturnitoffD．havingturneditoff39．--Iusuallygotherebytrain．一Whynot——byboatforachange?A．totrygoingB．tryingtogoC．to仃yandgoD．trygoing40．‘‘Can’tyouread?’’Marysaid——tothenotice．A．angrilypointingB．andpointangrilyC．angrilypointedD．andangrilypointing41．．-Ithoughtyouwouldcomebacktomorrow．一1wouldifI——t0attendameeting．A．don’thaveB．didn’thaveC．willnothaveD．wouldnothave42．一Doyouthilll(thethiefenteredthroughthegaragedoor7．．No．Ifhehad，Idon"tbelievehethelivingroomwindow．A．wouldhavebrokenC．hasbrokenB．hadbroken43．·-Theexperimenthadfailed!一Isuggestyouagain．74D．broke 山东师范大学硕士学位论文A．时B．tryingC．willtryD．wouldtry44．一-Heisaverybraveman．一-Yes，1wishI—hiscourage．A．haveB．hadC．willhaveD．wouldhave45．一Ifhe—he——thatfood．····Luckilyhewassenttothehospitalimmediately．A．waswarned；wouldnottakeB．hadbeenwarned；wouldnothavetakenC．wouldbewarned；hadnottakenD．wouldhavebeenwarned；hadnottaken46．一mydidn"tyouhelphim?-1wouldllaveIdidn"thavethemoney．A．s6llB．butC．otherwiseD．or47。一·W1loshouldgotoseeLiYing?Heisilltoday．-IsuggestWangHong．A．goesB．wouldgoC．goD．went48．-—Areyouenjoyingyourstayhere?一Yes，verymuch．1wishIhavetoleaveSOsoon．A．won’tB．don’tC．mustn’tD．didn’t49．一Whydoyouhavetobethereatsix?一T11eteacherdemandsthateveryoneinhisseatatsix．A．wouldbeB．CanbeC．beD．willbe50．．-Howdoesthelibrarianact?-Heactsasifheawalkingdictionary．A．wereB．beC．iSD．hasbeen75 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Appendix3学生对于交际法语法教学看法和建议的问卷调查(一)同学：你好!为了了解你们对交际法语法教学有何看法和建议，以便进一步改进和完善英语语法教学方法，我们设计了这份学生问卷，请你协助填写。谢谢!你的姓名：——性别：——年龄：——你所在的学校：——你所在的班级：实验班／控制班学生人数：——填表时间：——1．通过4个月的英语语法学习，你对教学效果：A．非常满意B．比较满意C．不太满意D．非常不满意2．你认为高职高专英语语法教学是否应该引入交际法?A．是B．否C．不确定D．不回答3．你认为交际法教学的最大优势是：A．培养了学生的交际能力B．以学生为中心C．注重学生的需求和兴趣D．让学生在参与活动中了解语言的结构4．你认为交际法教学的最大劣势是：A．忽视了语法知识的整体性和全面性B．只注重了语言的交际目的C．学生无法准确理解语言结构D．学生的语法能力有所下降5．你认为老师采用交际法后，课堂气氛：A．非常活跃B．比较活跃C．不太活跃D．非常不活跃6．你认为交际法教学能否提高你的语法能力和语言能力?A．能B．不能C．不确定D．不回答7．你觉得你的英语交际能力：A．有很大提高B．有一般提高C．没有提高D．有所减弱8．你希望教师采用交际法讲解语法时，能够：A．多一些学生自主参与和交流B．多讲解翻译C．不用练习口语，多做练习题D．加深巩固所学知识9．用交际法讲解语法时，你希望教师采用什么方式?A．情境模拟B．表演C．做游戏D．讨论10．你希望提高语法水平的同时，还能提高哪些方面的能力?76 山东师范大学硕士学位论文A．交际能力和语言表达能力B．写作能力C．听力能力D．逻辑思维能力 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Appendix4学生对于传统语法教学态度的问卷调查(二)同学：你好!为了了解你们对传统语法教学有何看法，以便进一步改进和完善英语语法教学方法，我们设计了这份学生问卷，请你协助填写。谢谢!你的姓名：——性别：——年龄：——你所在的学校：——你所在的班级：实验班／控制班学生人数：——填表时间：——1．你认为传统的语法教学：A．非常好B．一般C．不符合中国国情D．应以改进2．你认为传统的语法教学的最大优势是：A．牢固掌握各种语法知识B．可以轻松应对考试中的语法题目C．能够提高写作能力D．减少语法错误3．你认为传统的语法教学的最大弊端是：A．教师讲授，学生记录B．以教师为中心C．课堂上让学生做大量的语法项目练习D．缺乏交际能力的培养4．你觉得传统语法教学能适应目前高职高专学生学习的需求吗?A．能B．不能C．不确定D．不回答5．你希望老师在讲解语法时，采用哪种方法一传统法还是交际法?A．传统法B．交际法C．二者相结合D．二者都不采用 山东师范大学硕士学位论文Publication1．“探讨能力本位教育在高职英语教学中的应用”，《当代教育科学》2007第15期(独立作者)。2．“英语教学如何适应职业技术教育”，《高等教育科学》2007第4期(独立作者)。3．“论外语教学的跨文化导入"，《中国现代教育研究杂志》2007第6期(独立作者)。4．“浅谈高职英语教学模式的改革”，《潍坊高等职业教育》2007第2期(独立作者)。 山东师范大学硕士学位论文AcknowledgementsThefinalSuccessincompletingthisdissertationisduetotheassistancefrommanypeople．Firstofall，Ianlgreatlyindebtedtomysupervisor,ProfessorXiaoLongfu，arespectableandlearnedsupervisor,forallhishelp，encouragementandexpertise，whomanagedtosparetimeoutofhisfightscheduleandofferedmevaluablesuggestionsinthepreparationofthisthesisandwhosestandardsofacademicexcellencehavemademywritingandrevisionanexcitingandgratifyingexperience．1wouldliketoexpressmysincerethankstoalltheprofessorsintheForeignLanguageCollegeofShandongNormalUniversity．MysincerethanksshouldalsogotoLiuBoinForeignLanguageDepartmentofWeifangVocationalCollegeandZhangHuainForeignLanguageCollegeofWeifangUniversity,fromwhomIhavegreatlybenefited．Then1wanttothankmycompanionsandfriendsfortheirsupportandinformation．Myfinalthanksgotomyfamilies．Itisthemwhoalwaysgivemecontinuoussupportandencouragementinthewholestudy．80 交际法教学在我国高职英语语法教学中的应用作者：孙晓燕学位授予单位：山东师范大学本文链接：http://d.g.wanfangdata.com.cn/Thesis_Y1610659.aspx下载时间：2010年5月29日