支架式教学法在高中英语语法教学中的应用研究 56页

？八、Ｖ＾蘇游，八记换专惠辯、％‘＇、１、’－、、－？‘、？．、，Ｌ一、＇＼＞心、、一：户：‘如；护，；、：，Ｖ、＇‘’．、－．、、－、八、－？－、、‘．／－、、一？＜：，＞；乃＇；：、＼，；顯弊参２ｉｔｗｌｆ薦參％吉读言作’－，？’、‘．？’、‘＾－．公苗、為惡．Ｖ或ＡＣ满护’部－托娘＾我巾‘Ｉ？？．、＇’、、‘＇巧、、？－’；＇＇‘‘、＞０；、、、、、，：－二吃Ａ护、＼，、振’、、＇’、＇■．＊＇、、、，＇、、＇＇－’、、、１－’＾－、、八、：ＶＶ、＾冷，：＜／三＞；，；於诚、勢如—‘’’？，、、．１‘．’＇．‘、？一、八‘：．■‘；ｖ、；：如祈、■ｙ．，二；：＇＼－，巧、ｆｔ．舞【、蠢躬齡Ｍ＾唯．Ｅ纖啤．．．！議讓Ｊ： 分类号：学校代码：10165密级：学号:201412000220教育硕士专业学位论文支架式教学法在高中英语语法教学中的应用研究AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructions作者姓名：高明艳专业方向：学科教学（英语）导师姓名：冷慧2016年04 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsGaoMingyanAThesisSubmittedinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsFortheDegreeofMASTEROFARTSSchoolofForeignLanguagesLIAONINGNORMALUNIVERSITY2016 学位论文独创性声明。本人承诺：所呈交的学位论文是本人在导师指导下所取得的研究成果论文中除特别加Ｗ标注和致谢的地方外，，不包含他人和其他机构已经撰写或发表过的研究成果其他同志的研究成果对本人的启示和所提供的帮助，均已在论文中做了明确的声明并表示谢意。学位论文作者签名；為詞卷学位论文版权的使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解迂宁师范大学有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，及学校有权保留并向国家有关部口或机构送交复印件或磁盘，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本文授权，可＾将学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库并进行检索，可迂宁师范大学（＾采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存、汇编学位论文，并且本人电子文档的内容和纸质论文的内容相一致。保密的学位论文在解密后使用本授权书。举你讼义化者豁名：指导巧师疮名：签名日期：年ｋ月日 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文摘要支架式教学法是一种以建构主义理论为指导思想的的教学方法，与传统的教学法存在很大差异。它主张老师引导学生去建构和内化所学知识，从而实现更高水平的认知，激发学生英语学习兴趣。在这个过程中，教师可以通过搭建各式支架调动学生积极性，给课堂带来活力；也可以转变学生课堂角色，给学生机会进行自主学习合作交流。因此，学习不再是单向灌输的过程，而是一个各抒己见集思广益的过程。本文借助英文歌曲和英文电影探索支架式教学的教学模式，检验支架式教学在英语语法教学中的有效性。英文歌曲和英文电影使学生多渠道、多形式地接触真实的英语语言，让他们在对真实语言材料的感知和体验中发现英语语言的美妙、亲身感受英语语言的魅力，从而积极、主动地学习英语，克服害怕厌倦英语的情绪。因此，本文通过音乐和电影设计支架式教学过程，针对语法教学存在的主要问题以及支架式教学对于这些问题的弥补作用进行了实证研究，其中研究问题包括：1.支架式教学是否能够提高学生学习语法的兴趣？2.与传统教学法相比，支架式教学是否能提高学生正确使用语法的频率？3.支架式教学是否能提高学生的合作学习？4.英文歌曲和英文电影对语法支架教学的辅助作用有哪些？为了检验支架式教学在语法教学中的有效性，笔者选择大连市金州新区一所高中高二年级的两个班级作为研究对象。在实验班中，笔者用支架式教学对其进行一学期的语法教学。在控制班，笔者用传统的语法教学法进行同样的语法教学。在研究方法上，定性研究与定量研究相结合。笔者通过语法前测测出两个班的平均英语语法水平是否相当，通过语法后测对比分析两个班的教学效果，并借助SPSS进行比较分析。此外采用问卷调查法来了解学生对英语语法学习的兴趣与合作学习能力是否提高，探讨英文歌曲和英文电影对语法支架教学的辅助作用。经过数据分析与问卷分析，笔者发现支架式教学不但能够提高学生学习语法的兴趣，正确使用语法的频率而且可以提高学生的合作学习。在教学中，英文歌曲和英文电影激发了学生兴趣，缓解了课堂紧张气氛，有利于支架式语法教学实施。关键词：语法教学;支架式教学;学习兴趣;合作学习I AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsAStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsAbstractScaffoldingisateachingmethodundertheguidanceofConstructivism.Itisnothinglikethetraditionalmethod.Itadvocatesthatteachersshouldassiststudentstoconstructandinternalizeknowledge,eventuallyachievingahigherlevelofcognitionandarousingthelearninginterest.Inthisprocess,theteacher’srolehaschanged.Ontheonehand,teachercanstimulatestudents’learninginterestthroughvariousscaffolds,changethetediouslearningatmosphereofgrammarclassandcanbringstudentstheopportunityofself-learning.Meanwhile,studyisacooperativeprocessratherthananisolatedprocess,whichisbeneficialforstudents.Inthisthesis,withthehelpofEnglishsongsandEnglishmovies,theauthorexplorestheteachingmodelofscaffoldinginstructionsandverifiestheeffectivenessofscaffoldinginstructionsingrammarteachingonthebasisoftheorieslikeConstructivism,theAffectiveFilterHypothesisandKrashen’sComprehensibleInput.EnglishsongsandEnglishmoviesprovidestudentswithauthenticEnglishmaterialssothattheycanperceiveandexperiencethecharmandbeautyofEnglish.Consequently,studentstaketheinitiativetolearnEnglishandovercomethenegativeemotions.Therefore,theauthorcarriedouttheempiricalresearchwiththehelpofsongsandmoviesandtheresearchquestionsaresummarizedasfollows:1.Doscaffoldinginstructionshaveaneffectonarousingstudents’interestinEnglishgrammarlearning?2.ComparedwithPPP,canscaffoldinginstructionsimproveseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarability?3.Canscaffoldinginstructionscultivatethecooperation?4.WhatrolesdoEnglishsongsandfilmsplayinscaffoldinginstructions?Inordertotesttheeffectivenessofthescaffoldinginstructions,thewriterdidanexperimentinDalianNo.103seniorhighschool,LiaoningProvince.ThestudentswereselectedfromtwoparalleledclassesinGradetwo;Class7wasregardedasthecontrolledClass(CC)taughtbytraditionalPPPapproach;TheotheronewasClass8asExperimentalClass(EC)taughtbyscaffoldinggrammarinstructions.TheteachingexperimentlastedfornearlyatermfromSeptember,2015toJanuary,2016andbothquantitativeandqualitativemethodswereappliedinthestudy.II 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Inordertobetterunderstandthegrammaticallevelofstudents,pre-testwasused.Toobtaininformationaboutstudents’performanceafterlearninggrammarbasedonscaffoldinginstructions,post-testwasneeded.AllthestatisticswereanalyzedthroughSPSSandintheend,theauthorarrivedataconclusionthatscaffoldinginstructionscanimproveseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarability.Therewerealsoquestionnairestohelpconcludewhetherscaffoldinginstructionshadaneffectonarousingstudents’interestinEnglishgrammarlearning,whethercooperationabilitiesofstudentshadbeenenhancedandwhatrolesEnglishsongsandfilmsplayinscaffoldinginstructions.ItisrevealedfromtheexperimentthatscaffoldinginstructionshaveaneffectonhelpingstudentsarouseinterestinEnglishgrammarlearning.Moreover,comparedwithPPP,scaffoldinginstructionscouldimproveseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarabilityandcultivatethecooperationabilitiesofstudents’learning.Besides,Englishsongsandfilmscontributealottostimulatingstudents’learninginterestandreleasingtheirtensioninclass.KeyWords:Grammarteaching;Scaffoldinginstructions;Learninginterest;LearningabilityIII AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsContents摘要.............................................................................................................................................IAbstract.....................................................................................................................................IIChapter1Introduction........................................................................................................11.1BackgroundoftheResearch.......................................................................................11.2ThePurposeoftheResearch.......................................................................................21.3TheSignificanceoftheResearch................................................................................31.4StructureoftheThesis................................................................................................3Chapter2LiteratureReview..............................................................................................52.1ResearchonGrammar.................................................................................................52.1.1ResearchonGrammarTeachingAbroad..........................................................52.1.2ResearchonGrammarTeachinginChina........................................................62.2PreviousResearchonScaffoldingInstructions...........................................................72.2.1ResearchonScaffoldingInstructionsAbroad...................................................72.2.2ResearchonScaffoldingInstructionsinChina.................................................82.3ScaffoldingandRolesofEnglishSongsandFilmsinESLInstruction......................92.3.1ResearchontheRolesofEnglishSongsatHomeandAbroad.........................92.3.2ResearchontheRolesofEnglishFilmsatHomeandAbroad.........................9Chapter3TheoreticalFrameworkforScaffoldingInstructions.....................................113.1TheConceptofScaffoldingInstructions...................................................................113.2SpecialFeaturesofScaffoldingInstructions.............................................................113.3GuidelinesofScaffoldingInstructions......................................................................123.4ProceduresofScaffoldingInstructions.....................................................................133.5ScaffoldingandtheConstructivism..........................................................................143.6ScaffoldingandKrashen’sComprehensibleInput...................................................153.7ScaffoldingandtheAffectiveFilterHypothesis.......................................................153.8SummaryoftheChapter...........................................................................................16Chapter4Methodology.....................................................................................................174.1ResearchDesign........................................................................................................174.1.1ResearchQuestions.........................................................................................174.1.2ResearchSubjects............................................................................................174.1.3ResearchInstruments......................................................................................174.2ResearchProcedures.................................................................................................184.2.1QuestionnaireIandaPre-test.........................................................................19IV 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文4.2.2TeachingProcedures.......................................................................................194.2.3QuestionnaireIIandaPost-test......................................................................254.2.4DataCollection................................................................................................254.2.5SummaryoftheChapter.................................................................................25Chapter5ResultsandDiscussion.......................................................................................275.1AnalysisofResultsofQuestionnaire........................................................................275.1.1AnalysisofResultsofQuestionnaireI............................................................275.1.2AnalysisofResultsofQuestionnaireII..........................................................305.2AnalysisofScoresofPre-testandPost-test..............................................................325.2.1AnalysisofScoresofPre-test.........................................................................325.2.2AnalysisofScoresofPost-test........................................................................33Chapter6Conclusion..........................................................................................................346.1MajorFindings........................................................................................................346.2LimitationsoftheStudy............................................................................................346.3SuggestionsforFutureResearch...............................................................................35References................................................................................................................................37Appendix..................................................................................................................................40Acknowledgements..................................................................................................................46V 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter1IntroductionThischapterwillintroducetheresearchbackground,theresearchpurposeandsignificanceofthestudy,thenillustratingthestructureofthethesisattheendofthischapter.1.1BackgroundoftheResearchGrammaristhefoundationofEnglishwhichsupportsabilitysuchaswritingandspeaking.Accordingtomodernlanguageteaching,“grammaristhefifthskillafterlistening,speaking,readingandwriting.”(Larsen-Freeman,2003)Therefore,Englishgrammarteachinghasaprofoundinfluenceonstudents’comprehensiveandintegratedabilitiesaswellastheirfutureacademicperformance.AnditissignificantlyimportanttodevelopEnglishapplicationabilityofstudents.However,grammarteachinghasbeenputintoanawkwardposition.Firstofall,thereisaconflictbetweentraditionalteachingmethodsandnewteachingnotion.Nowadays,mostteachersstillapplytraditionalPPPapproach--presentation,practiceandproduction.Bothteachingandlearninghavebecomeamonotonousprocesswithoutinteractionandasenseofachievement.Teachersprovidestudentssomegrammaticalruleswithplentyofmechanicaldrillstoconsolidatetherulesandteachersemphasizeisolatedgrammaticalstructureandlexicalitems.“Subsequentcommunicativeactivitieswhichusetheformtoperformavarietyofdiscoursefunctionsarenotincludedeither.Itjustinvolvesidentifyingvariouspartsofspeechandthenlearningtherulesofputtingthepartstogether.”(Block,1997)Studentswhoareconfusedbydifferentconceptslearngrammarbyrecitationandrote.Thoughspendingmuchtime,thelearningresultcannotsatisfystudents.Besides,EnglishcurriculumcriteriaissuedbytheMinistryofEducationclearlypointedoutthatintheimplementationprocessofhighschoolEnglishcurriculum,theteachersshouldoptimizetheteachingmethods,guidestudentstolearnactivelyandhelpthemformalearningstyleaimingatdevelopingcapacities.Teachersarerequiredtoberealisticanddown-to-earthandarrangetheirteachingprocessfromtheperspectiveofstudents.What’smore,theinconformitybetweentheCollegeEntranceExamandtheobjecttocultivatestudents’integratedabilities.InChina,whetherstudentscangotouniversitydependsontheircollegeentranceexaminationscores.Whetherateacherisqualified,toalargeextent,isevaluatedbystudents’academicperformance.Alltheseevaluationstandardsaddburdennotonlytoteachersbutalsotostudents.That’swhygrammarlearningandgrammarteachingbothgotoextremes.ChineseEnglishteachersbelievetheteacher-centered,booked-centeredandPPPteachingmethodsarethemosteffectiveoneindicatingthatinteractionslikepair-work,groupdiscussionareawasteoftime.FewopportunitiesareprovidedforstudentstocommunicateinclassandstudentsseeminglyadapttosuchlearningatmosphereandarriveataconclusionthatEnglishisadullsubjectandclassactivitieshavenothingtodowiththeCEEperformance.Therefore,activitiesshouldbeeliminatedinEnglish1 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsclass.ThissituationapparentlycontradictswiththerequirementsoftheNewEnglishCurriculumRequirementswhichattachgreatimportanceoninspiringinterestinlearningEnglish,formingeffectivelearningstrategiesanddevelopingself-learningabilityandcooperativeconsciousness.1.2ThePurposeoftheResearchInrecentyears,plentyofempiricalresearcheshaverevealedthatgrammarteachingisanindispensablefactorforlearnerstousetargetlanguageaccurately.Besides,asisstatedabove,thereisaconflictbetweentraditionalteachingmethodandthenewteachingnotion.Andtosomeextent,thecurrentteachingmethodisagainsttheobjecttoarousestudents’interestandcultivatestudents’integratedabilities.Therefore,itisessentialtofindaneffectivewayforteachingEnglishgrammar.Thisresearchaimstosolvelong-standingproblemsforhighschoolgrammarteachingandintroducethescaffoldinginstructionstohelparousestudents’interestandcultivatestudents’integratedcompetence.ScaffoldingisateachingmethodundertheguidanceofConstructivism.Itisnothinglikethetraditionalmethod.Itadvocatesthatteachersshouldassiststudentstoconstructandinternalizeknowledge,eventuallyachievingahigherlevelofcognitionandarousingthelearninginterest.Tobespecific,scaffoldinginstructionsencouragesstudentstoexplorethegrammaticalrulesindependentlyandstepbystep,thentotestifytheconclusionsbygroupdiscussion.Intheend,thecorrectcognitionisacquiredwiththehelpoftheteacher.Inthisprocess,theteacher’srolehaschanged.Ontheonehand,teachercanstimulatestudents’learninginterestthroughvariousscaffoldsandchangesthetediouslearningatmosphereofgrammarclass;Ontheotherhandcanbringstudentstheopportunityofself-learning.Meanwhile,studyisacooperativeprocessratherthananisolatedprocess,whichisbeneficialforstudents.Inthisthesis,withthehelpofEnglishsongsandEnglishmovies,theauthorexplorestheteachingmodelofscaffoldinginstructionsandverifiestheeffectivenessofthescaffoldinginstructionsingrammarteachingonthebasisoftheorieslikeConstructivism,Krashen’sComprehensibleInputandtheAffectiveFilterHypothesis.EnglishsongsandEnglishmoviesprovidestudentswithauthenticEnglishmaterialsothattheycanperceiveandexperiencethecharmandbeautyofEnglish.Consequently,studentstaketheinitiativetolearnEnglishandovercomethenegativeemotions.Therefore,theauthorcarriedouttheresearchandtheresearchquestionsaresummarizedasfollows:1.Doscaffoldinginstructionshaveaneffectonarousingstudents’interestinEnglishgrammarlearning?2.ComparedwithPPP,canscaffoldinginstructionsimproveseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarability?3.Canscaffoldinginstructionscultivatethecooperation?4.WhatrolesdoEnglishsongsandfilmsplayinscaffoldinginstructions?2 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文1.3TheSignificanceoftheResearchThetheoreticalsignificance.ThisthesisprovidesareferencemodelforseniorhighschoolEnglishgrammarteaching--scaffoldinginstructions.ThisthesisisdesignedonthebasisoftheorieslikeConstructivism,theAffectiveFilterHypothesisandKrashen’sComprehensibleInput.UndertheguidanceofConstructivism,teachersandstudentsunderstandtheirrolesintheclassroom.Theteacherisacoursedesigner,activityorganizerandfacilitator.Widdowson(1999)believesthattheincreaseinstudent-centeredactivitiesandcollaborativeworkintheclassroomdonotmeanthelessinteachers’authority.Heorshemustmanagetocreatethenecessaryconditionsforlearningandmonitoringandguidingprogressfurther.Asforstudents,theylearnasthemainbodyoflearningandteaching.Personalunderstandingandcognitionplaythekeyroleinlearning.Krashen’sComprehensibleInputhelpsteachersunderstandhowtotakeadvantageofZPDandprovideappropriateassistancewhenapplyingscaffoldinginstructions.Traditionalapproachregardsteachingasamechanicalprocedure.However,AffectiveFilterHypothesisexplainsthattheaffectivefactorshaveaninfluenceonforeignlanguagelearning,whichwillcontributetothetransformationofteachingnotionsandtakestudents’interest,motivationandself-confidenceintoconsideration.Besides,scaffoldinginstructionsarethebalancebetweentest-orientedexaminationandNewCurriculumCriteria.Previousstudieshaveshownthatscaffoldinginstructionscanhelpimprovestudents’academicperformanceandthisresearchcontributesalottounderstandingtheimportanceofinteractionforstudentsandteachers.Notonlycanscaffoldinginstructionsstimulatestudents’interestinlearningEnglish,fosterself-confidencebutalsodevelopstudents’cooperativeawareness.Hence,scaffoldinghasanimportantandpracticalsignificancetothesuccessfulimplementationoftheNewCurriculumCriteria.1.4StructureoftheThesisThisthesisconsistsofsixchapters:Chapteroneintroducestheresearchbackground,theresearchpurposeaswellassignificanceofthethesisandthenillustratesthestructureofthestudy.Chaptertwoisliteraturereviewintroducingpreviousresearchesonscaffoldinginstructionsbothathomeandabroad,researchesongrammarteachingathomeandabroadaswellasresearchesonEnglishsongsandfilms.Chapterthreepresentsthetheoreticalframeworkwhichisusedtoguidethestudy.ThemaintheoriesareConstructivismTheory,theAffectiveFilterHypothesisandKrashen’sComprehensibleInput.Chapterfouristheresearchdesign.Itincludestheresearchquestions,subjects,researchinstruments,proceduresandateachingphase.Chapterfiveisusedtomakeananalysisofdatacollectedfromtheformerchapter.3 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsChaptersixconcludesthemajorfindingsofthisresearch,pointsoutitslimitationsandputsforwardsomeadviceforfutureresearches.4 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter2LiteratureReview2.1ResearchonGrammarLinguistsbelievethatgrammarprovidesaframeworkforbringintoplaytheroleofalanguageanditisapre-conditionforapplication.Besides,grammarabilityisaknowledgesystemforgraspingalanguageform.Apparently,grammarisveryimportantforalanguageandlet’sreviewtheachievementathomeandabroad.2.1.1ResearchonGrammarTeachingAbroadMethodsinForeignLanguageteachingbeginwiththeGrammar-translationmethodanddevelopfromtheDirectMethod,theAudiolingualMethod,CommunicativeLanguageTeachingtoCooperativeLanguageLearningandTask-BasedLanguageTeaching.Sincescholarsandeducatorssupportingdifferentmethodsholddifferentviewstowardsgrammar,grammarteaching,inevitablyshouldadoptdifferentmethods.GrammarTranslationisawayofemphasizingthestructureorruleofaforeignlanguageanddesigntaskoftranslatingsentencesandtextsinoroutofthetargetlanguage.“Thefirstlanguageismaintainedasthereferencesystemintheacquisitionofthesecondlanguage.”(Stern1983:455)InmostGrammar-Translationtexts,asyllabuswasfollowedbythesequencingofgrammarpointsthroughoutatextandthereisanattempttoteachgrammarinanorganizedandsystematicway.Inthemidandlatenineteenthcentury,oppositiontotheGrammar-TranslationMethodgraduallydevelopedinseveralEuropeancountrieswhichlaidfoundationsforthedevelopmentofnewwaysofteachinglanguages.TheDirectMethodattemptstomakesecondlanguagelearningmorelikefirstlanguagelearning.Classroominstructionwasledinthetargetlanguage.Grammarwastaughtinductivelyandconcretepronunciationandgrammarwereemphasized.However,thismethodfailedtoconsiderthepracticalconditionoftheclassroom.TheAudiolingualMethodwascoinedbyProfessorNelsonBrooksin1964.Thismethodisthecombinationofstructurallinguistictheory,contrastiveanalysisandbehavioristpsychology.Itisarguedthatlanguageis“primarilywhatisspokenandthatonlyspeechhadapriorityinlanguageteaching.”(Brook1964)Themethodstressesthatlanguageskillsarelearnedmoreeffectivelyiftheitemsinthetargetlanguagearepresentedinspokenform.Aural-oraltrainingprovidesthefoundationforthedevelopmentofotherlanguageskill.Theteachingofgrammarisinductiveratherthandeductive.Apparently,grammarisnotputintotoppriority.Inlate1960s,scholarssawtheneedtopayattentiontocommunicativeproficiencyinsteadofonthemasteryofstructureinlanguageteaching.ThegoaloflanguageteachingistodevelopwhatHymes(1972)referredtoas“communicativecompetence”.Hymescoinedthistermonthepurposeofmakingacomparisonbetweenacommunicativeviewoflanguage5 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionswithChomsky’stheoryofcompetence.CommunicativeLanguageTeachingthendeveloped.CooperativeLanguageLearningisgenerallypromotedanddevelopedintheUnitedStatesinthe1960sand1970s.Itis“grouplearningactivityorganizedsothatlearningisdependentonthesociallystructuredexchangeofinformationbetweenlearnersingroupsandinwhicheachlearnerisaccountableforhisorherownlearningandismotivatedtoincreasethelearningofothers.”(OlsenandKagan1992:8)Reviewingthedevelopmentofgrammarteachingabroad,itiseasytosummarizethatlanguageteachingdevelopsfromfocusingonlinguisticstructuretocommunicationandemotion.Scholarswhoholddifferentviewsoftengotoextremesadvocatingthoroughlyabandonopposedapproaches.However,itisprovedthatthepracticalclassroomteachingisunsatisfyingwhenapplyinganysingleapproach.ItisatrendforEnglishteachinginChinatoconnectdifferentapproachestogether.Italsodemandsemphasisonpracticalcommunicationandinteractionaswellaslanguageaccuracyforclassroomteaching.2.1.2ResearchonGrammarTeachinginChinaThestatisticsconcerninggrammarteachingondomesticcorejournalsrevealsthattherewashardlyanyresearchaboutgrammarteachingfrom1982to1997.Scholarsbegantodosurveyinthisfieldfrom1998andtherewasangraduallyupwardtrendin2005,arrivingatthefirstclimaxin2011.Thefactindicatesthatscholarsstarttopayattentiontogrammarteaching.However,grammarstillaccountsforasmallproportionofEnglishteaching.LiuYuying(2001)illustratedtheproblemsexistingingrammarteachinginmiddleschoolandgaveasystematicanalysisonlearningstrategy,advisingarousingstudents’learninginterestswithaflexibleandopenwayandfacilitatingthatstudenttransformfromapassivereceivertoanactivereceiver.Thefocusofdomesticgrammarteachingliesinthefactorsinfluencinggrammarteaching,specificteachingmethod,statusquoaswellastheproblemsexistinginteaching.Helan(2002)didaresearchon“Howtoviewtheroleofgrammarwhenemphasizinglistening,speaking,readingandwriting.”ZhouXiaoyan(2006)gaveabriefanalysisonEnglishGrammarTeaching,pointingoutthat“grammarisnotonlytheskeletonofalanguagebutalsoapowerfultool.Asaresult,weshouldfullyrealizethesignificanceofgrammar.”Non-empiricalresearchdominatesdomesticgrammarstudywhileempiricalresearchservesasanassistance.Domesticscholarsdoresearchesmainlycenteringontheoryexplorationorbasingonpersonalexperiencewhichlacksscientificdataanalysisandtestification.Obviously,theresearchresultsarenotpersuasive.Nevertheless,empiricalresearchisconfinedtolearningstrategyormethodofseniorhighschoolstudentsandcollegestudents.That’swhyinrecentyearsempiricalresearchmethodisappealingforbyscholars.(Guishichun,Ningchunyan1997)Inthenearfuture,moreempiricalresearchorthecombinationofempiricalandnon-empiricalshouldbeadoptedsoastoarriveatpersuasiveandscientificconclusions.6 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文2.2PreviousResearchonScaffoldingInstructionsScholarsathomeandabroadhavedonealargenumberofresearchesconcerningscaffolding.Heretheauthorintroducessomestudies.2.2.1ResearchonScaffoldingInstructionsAbroadAkeyideaderivedfromVygotsky’snotionofsociallearningisthatofscaffolding:theassistanceprovidedbymorecompetentpeersoradults.(Wood,Bruner,&Ross,1976)Scaffoldingoriginatesfromzoneofproximaldevelopment(Vygotsky1978)whichisapowerfulmetaphorasitindicatetssupportsthataregraduallywithdrawnaslongaslearnershaveconstructedtheirknowledgeandcouldactindependently.Afterthechildincreasesunderstandingandcontrol,heorsheneedslessassistance.Scaffoldofferedbyteacherchangeovertimefromdirectivecontrol,tosuggestion,toencouragementandtoobservation.Bestscaffoldsshouldadapttoachild’stempowhichmovefromother-regulationtoself-regulation.Finally,thechildsetupself-scaffoldingthroughinternalthought.(Wertsch1985).Fourstageshavebeenidentifiedinlearners’progressionthroughtheZPD:1.Scaffoldingisprovidedbyothers.2.Scaffoldingisprovidedbylearnersthemselves--forexample,byself-talk.3.Scaffoldingbecomesredundantaslearnersactautomatically.4.Scaffoldingisrequiredagainiftherearechangesinthetaskorcontext.(TharpandGallimore1988)Scaffoldingmightincludegivingstudentsmorestructureatthebeginningofasetoflessonsandgraduallyturningresponsibilityovertothemtooperateontheirown.(Palincsar,1986;Rosenshine&Meister,1992,1994).Gibbons(1993,2002)exploredhowteachersappliedscaffoldinginstructionsinclassroominordertoimprovestudents’languageability.HisbooksScaffoldingLearning:TeachingSecondLanguageLearnerintheMainstreamClassroom(1993)andLearningtoLearninaSecondLanguage(2002)discussedmanyscaffoldingactivitiesinthesecondlanguageclassroomtodevelopstudents’learningskills.Ge&Land(2003)statedthatthepeers’interactionprocessneededtobescaffoldedbytheteacherthroughexpertmodelingonlytobenefitfromdiscussion.Arelatedconceptiscognitiveapprenticeship,whichdescribestheentireprocessofmodeling,coaching,scaffolding,andevaluationthatistypicallyseenwheneverone-to-oneinstructiontakesplace.(John-Steiner&Mahn,2003;Rogoff,2003)RogerAzevedo（2004）didresearch“ontheinfluenceofadults’self-learningundertheinstructionofscaffoldingassistedbymulti-media.”Hefoundthatadaptivescaffoldingisfarmoreeffectivethanfixedscaffoldingandnonescaffoldinginfacilitatingself-learning.Asamatteroffact,researchesonscaffoldinginstructionstartedearlierinwesterncountriesthaninChinaandscaffoldinginstructionshasbecomeakindofmatureteaching7 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsmethodappliedinlanguageteaching.However,mostofthestudiesfocusondiscourseandqualitativeanalysis.Therearenotenoughquantitativeanalysis.2.2.2ResearchonScaffoldingInstructionsinChinaHeKekang(1999)introducedthescaffoldinginstructionstheoryandmadesometheoreticalanalysesincludingtheconceptofScaffolding,theanalysisofthedifferencesbetweentraditionalteachingdesignandthoseunderConstructivismenvironmentandfivestepsofscaffolding.Thefivestepsare:settingupscaffold,gettingintothecontext,independentexploration,cooperativelearningandevaluation.PangWeiguo(2003)gaveabriefintroductionaboutscaffoldinginstructionswithexamples.Hebelievedthatsuccessfullearningdependedonlearners’self-explorationandcollaborativeexploration.Aclassshouldincludecontextcreation,independentstudy,groupdiscussionandself-evaluation.Asuccessfulclassshoulddevelopstudents’self-learningabilitieswithselfconstruction.ChenBingwei(2003)didaresearchonpoliticsunderscaffoldinginstructionsbelievingthatscaffoldinginstructionscanimprovestudents’politicaltheoriesandbringintoplaystudents’initiatives,self-learningandcreativity.Besides,scaffoldingcandevelopmiddleschoolstudents’criticalthinkingandcapacitiesofadjustingtothesociety.ZhangGuorong(2004)pointedoutthatthrougheffectiveteacher-studentdialogue,scaffoldingaimedatfosteringlearnerstocompletetasksthatcan’tbefinishedalone.StudiesonPhysicsteaching(LiLi,2004)andPEteaching(HuangWenwu,HuangWenwei,ZhangZhengzhong,LiuXiaoxiang,2006)fullyshowscaffoldingcanguideteaching.ThenextpartisrelatedtoscaffoldinginstructionsappliedinEnglishteaching.About135masterthesesconcerningtheexplorationofthescaffoldinginstructionsonEnglishteachinghaveappearedinCNKIsince2005.ThegraduatestudentsappliedthisapproachintodifferentfieldsofEnglishteaching,mostofwhichareaboutlistening,readingandwriting.CaoWenhai(2007)appliedscaffoldinginstructionsinseniorEnglishwritingteaching,whichprovedtobemoreeffectivethantraditionalteachingmethods.QianKeying(2012)saidthescaffoldingtheorycouldbeappliedtotheEnglishreadinganditisgoingtoprovidestudentswithtimelyandeffectivelearningsupportandstrivetoachieveEnglishteachingwithlightburden,highefficiency.”Thepurposeofconstructingscaffoldingistopromotestudents’developmentfromcurrentleveltopotentiallevel.YeWenhong(2010)andJiaoWei(2010)didexperimentsonEnglishreading.YeWenhongfurtherexplainthemeaningofscaffoldinginstructions.SheandJiaoWeifurtheranalyzetheapplicationoffivestepsofscaffoldinginstructionsinEnglishreading.IntheconclusionofJiaoWei’sexperiment,themodelofscaffoldinginstructionsisaneffectivewayinEnglishreading.ZhangYuyu(2012)didastudy“OntheScaffoldingInstructionsinVocationalCollege8 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文EnglishTeaching”presentingsomeapplicableevaluationsystemandsimplescaffoldstouse.2.3ScaffoldingandRolesofEnglishSongsandFilmsinESLInstructionInrecentyearsscholarsathomeatabroadhavedonealargequantityofresearchesconcerningapplyingEnglishsongsandfilmsinESLinstructions.Andtherolesofsongsandfilmshavebeenrecognized.2.3.1ResearchontheRolesofEnglishSongsatHomeandAbroadWuXuehua(2003)holdsthatESLteachinghasbeentransformedfromtraditionalteacher-dominatedmodelintoastudent-centeredmodelbyapplyingEnglishsongsintolanguageteaching.Undersuchmodel,bothteacherandstudentsappreciatesongsandresonatewitheachother,aharmoniousteacher-studentrelationshipbuiltup.IntermsoftherolesofEnglishsongsinteaching,WangGuohua(1997)expresshisviews.“Itcanhelpstudentscorrectpronunciationandlearnvocabularyaswellasgrammar;Besides,itcanfacilitatetheunderstandingofthegeography,customandhistoryinEnglish-spokencountries.Moreover,thebondbetweenteachersandstudentshasbeenenhanced.”XuePing(2009)andChenHongmeiholdthatmusiccanbeusedinthelead-inpartofanewlesson,whichcancreatealivelyclassroomatmosphereandinspirestudents’interestinlearningEnglish.Inthearticle,abriefanalysisofthemusicalroleinEnglishteaching,GuanYanpingbelievesthatmusicenablesstudentstoconcentrateonlearning,memorizetextbooks,mobilizeanddevelopthinkingKrashen(1985)laidemphasisontheInputHypothesis:1.Theinputshouldbecomprehensible;2.Itshallbecloselyrelatedtoreallifeinafunnyway.3.Theinputshouldnotsolelyregardgrammarasthesyllabus;4.Enoughlanguageinput.Byprocessingandabsorbingalargeamountofcomprehensibleinput,languageoutputproducesnaturally.LanguageacquisitioncanberealizedwithEnglishsongsasinput.Eken(1996)haspointedoutsomeadvantagesofmakinguseofEnglishsongsasfollows:(1)Itcancreatearelaxingclassroomatmosphere;(2)Itcanstimulatelearners’activeemotionsandattitudes;(3)Itencourageslearnerstomakefulluseoftheirimaginationandcreativity;(4)Languagelearninghasbecomediversifiedandentertaining.Itcanpresentandpracticeatopic,vocabulariesandlanguagepoints,etc.Murphey(1992)analyzedtheadvantagesofapplyingEnglishsongsinESLteaching:“Firstly,songscontainplentyofcommonly-usedphrases;Secondly,lyricsiswithconversationallanguage;Thirdly,onthewhole,thetempoofsingingsongsisslowerthantheaveragespeedoforalEnglishwithmorepausesandrepetitions.Allofthesefactorscancontributetotheunderstandingofthelyricsandenhancethegraspofthelanguage.”2.3.2ResearchontheRolesofEnglishFilmsatHomeandAbroad9 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsStoller(1992)advocatedthatfilmscanbeusedasamouldtodeveloplanguageskills.Stempleski&Tomalin(1990)hasputforwardtheeducationalvalueoffilmsandhowtousefilmtodesignactivities,taptheimaginationanddeveloplanguageskillsofstudents.Theybelievethatapartfromexperienceinreallife,theapplicationoffilmclipsinEnglishclassroomisthebestchoicetoapproachreallifeasitrevealslifeandexperienceintherealworld.Carr&Duncan(1987)opposedwatchingfilmsblindlyandaimlessly.Theybelievedthatitwasbettertodiscussorwatchaclipinsteadofspendinghourswatchingawholemovie.Inthisfield,researchathomedevelopedrelativelylatebutrapidly.Andresearchhasbecomemorespecific.LiSongYue(2005)elaboratedthepotentialfunctionsoforiginalfilmsinEnglishlearning,suchaspotentialadvantagesofcross-culturalexchange,languagelearning,communicativecompetenceanddramaperformances.SunShengyong(2006)pointedoutthatreadingEnglishmoviescriptisbeneficialforimprovingreadingandwritingskills.XuXiaohong(2006)believesthatstudentscanbefamiliarandcomfortablewithcross-culturaldifferencesbyappreciatingEnglishmovies.Grammarteachingwiththeassistanceoffilmscanoffsetitsshortcomings.However,nospecifiedcontent,methodandtextbookhavebeenpointedout.LongQianhong(2007)believedthatEnglishclassisacoursethatintegrateslearning,culturewithaestheticelements.Filmcoursedesignshouldcarryoutaroundthecourseobjectives.Exerciseshouldberelatedtocultural,artisticandaestheticaspects.2.4SummaryTosummarizewhathasbeendiscussedintheabovepartsofthischapter,someresearchesareabouttheintroductionorexplanationoftheoriesinthisfield.SomeareaboutempiricalstudiesonEnglishlistening,speaking,reading,orwriting.FewerempiricalstudieshavebeenconductedinEnglishgrammarteachinginseniorhighschoolsandmoreresearchersstudyscaffoldinginstructionsfromthetheoreticalpointofviewratherthanempiricalstudies.Therefore,theauthorconductedanempiricalstudy,applyingthescaffoldinginstructionstoseniorhighschoolEnglishgrammarteaching.Byreviewingthestudiesathomeandabroad,theauthorhasamorecomprehensiveunderstandingabouttheconnectionofEnglishmusicandsongswithEnglishteaching.Allofthesewilllayafirmfoundationforfurtherstudythroughwhichtheauthorendeavortocombinescaffoldinginstructions,grammarteachingwithEnglishmusicandsongs.10 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter3TheoreticalFrameworkforScaffoldingInstructions3.1TheConceptofScaffoldingInstructionsThetermscaffoldingisfirstproposedbyAmericaneducationalexpert--Bruner(1976).Typically,scaffoldingmeansprovidingachildwithagreatdealofsupportduringtheearlystagesoflearningandthendiminishingsupportandhavingthechildtakeonincreasingresponsibilityassoonassheorheisable.(Rosenshine&Meister,1992)Nowadays,scaffoldinginstructionsareemployedtorepresent“thedelightfulcollaborationbetweenstudentsandteachersbywhichteachersprovidesensitive,appropriateassistancetofacilitatechildren’sdevelopmentandsupportchildrentobeindependent,self-governingandinitiatives.”NassajiandSwaindefinedscaffoldinginabroadsense.“scaffoldingisthecooperationbetweenlearnerandexpertwithinZPD.”Ellis(2003)definedas“thedialogicprocessbywhichonespeakerassistsanotherinperformingafunctionthatheorshecannotperformalone.”(Ellis,2003,p180-181)Fromtheabovedefinitions,scaffoldinginstructionsmeansupportwithinZPDforlearningandproblemsolving;mightincludeclues,dividingtheproblemintosteps,oranythingelsethathelpstudenttogrowindependentlyasalearner.3.2SpecialFeaturesofScaffoldingInstructionsAccordingtoWood,BrunerandRoss(1976)andDonate(1994),scaffoldinghassixmainfeatures:(1)Recruitment:recruitinterestinthetask;(2)Reductionindegreesoffreedom:simplifythetask;(3)Directionmaintenance:maintainpursuitoftheaim;(4)Markingcriticalfeatures:markcriticalfeaturesanddiscrepanciesbetweentheproducedandtheidealsolution;(5)Frustrationcontrol:controlfrustrationinthecourseofproblemsolving;(6)Demonstration:demonstrateanidealizedversionoftheact.AccordingtoBransford,BrownandCocking(2000)thecharacteristicsofthescaffoldingsgoasfollows:1)Arouselearners’interestsinthelearningtask.2)Informaclearleaninggoalforlearners.3)Offersomeguidancesoastohelpthelearners.4)Reducedifficultyandrisk.Generallyspeaking,accordingtotheresearcher,scaffoldingpossessessomefeatures,asisshownbelow:First,teachingoccurswithinZPD.Basedonscaffoldingtheories,thewholeteaching11 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsprocessshouldbekeptwithinZPD.ItisprovedfrompracticethatteachingwithinZPDcannotonlytrainandintensifyinnerpsychologicalmechanism,butalsostimulateandformpsychologicalmechanisminexistentatpresent,whichmeanscreatesnewproductandpromotedevelopment.Consequently,teachingshouldoccurwithinZPD.Second,intersubjectivity.Bothteachersandstudentsparticipateinthelearningprocessandtheyarecomplementarytoeachother.Relyingontheguidanceofteachers,studentsbringintoplaytheirownsubjectivepositionsandcreativity.Eventually,studentsconstructknowledgeefficientlywithconstructivismmodel.Asorganizers,guiders,instructorsandthepromoters,teacherscreatetemporaryframeworkwiththeirteachingexperience,improveteachingmethodsandcontroltheoveralldirection.However,teachersbynomeansrestrictlearners’activities.Third,settingupscaffoldingisadynamicprocess.Scaffoldssetupinaclassshouldbeaccommodatedtostudents’currentlevelandperformance.Teachersshouldtimelytakemeasurestohelpstudentstograsprequiredknowledge.Theassistanceinscaffoldingshouldnotbefixed.Scaffoldsshouldberemovedgraduallywiththeincreaseofstudents’confidence,developmentofcognitivelevelandabilitiestosolveproblemsindependently.Manyscholarshaverealizedtheimportanceofevaluatingafterprovidingscaffoldsandputforwardsomeevaluatingmeasures,forexample,dynamicevaluation,onlineevaluationandformativeevaluationtomonitorandcheckwhetherstudentshaveunderstandtheknowledge.3.3GuidelinesofScaffoldingInstructionsScaffoldinginstructionsisaneffectivewayinwhichteachercanmeetpersonaldemandofstudents.(Kame"enui,Camine,Dixon,Simmons,&Coyne,2002).HoganandPressley(1997)summarizedeightguidelinesforclassinstruction.1)Teachersshouldmakepreparationbeforehand.Teachersshouldsetupappropriatetasksaccordingtotheneedsandfeaturesofstudentsandtheirlearningsituation.2)Bothteachersandstudentsparticipateinsettingupacommongoal.Teachersshoulddiscusswithstudentstodeterminethetaskandgoalsothattheyfullyarousetheenthusiasmofstudentsintheteachingprocess.3)Paycloseattentiontostudents’needsanddevelopment.Theteachermusthaveakeenpowerofobservation,throughwhichteachersfindthepotentialerrorsofstudentsandensurethatstudentscanmakeprogressanddevelopment.4)Givestudentsaproperandtimelyhelpaccordingtodifferentsituation.Throughrolemodel,motivation,groupdiscussion,teachersgivestudentsdifferenthelptomeettheneedsofdevelopment.5)Encouragestudentstokeeppursuitofgoalspersistently.Teachersshouldencouragestudentstoparticipate,putforwardquestionsandhelpthemtoconcentrateonaims.6)Givetimelyfeedbackbasedonstudents’performance.Accordingtothefeedback,teacherscansupervisestudentsandstudentscanmakeseveralrectificationsinthelearning.12 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文7)Cultivatestudents’riskawareness.Throughtheenvironmentcreation,teachersdevelopstudents’toleranceandtheabilitytoresiststress.Onthebasisofgoodcontrolofsetbacksandriskmeasurement,students’consciousnessof“adventure”canbecultivated.8)Graduallywithdrawscaffoldsandpromotetheinternalizationofknowledgeandenvironment.Studentsshouldreducetherelianceontheteachergraduallyandcultivatetheirownindependentabilitiestofulfilltasks.Teachersshouldprovideavarietyofopportunitiestoformcompetence.3.4ProceduresofScaffoldingInstructionsFiveproceduresofscaffoldingteachingareshownasfollows:1)SettingupScaffolds.AccordingtoComprehensibleInput,teachersbuildupconceptualframeworksurroundingthecurrentlearningsubject.Teachersmakechoicesandsetupappropriatescaffoldsontheconditionthatteachersunderstandstudents’knowledgeaccumulation,competence,learningexperienceandinterests.Inpractice,thescaffoldingapplicationisflexibleandvarious.Intermsofscaffoldingcategories,thereisnounanimousclassification.Eggen,P.&KauchakD.(1997)dividedscaffoldsintobidirectionalscaffoldandunidirectionalscaffoldfromtheperspectiveofinteraction.ScaffoldsaredividedintoaccidentalscaffoldandstrategicscaffoldbyPennyLiBeed.(1991)Teacherscanadaptdifferentscaffoldswhenfacingdifferenttasksorobjects.Thatistosay,aslongasthescaffoldcanmeetstudents’demandandhelpstudentswithinZPD,theyareappropriatescaffolds,forexample,questionscaffold,suggestionscaffold,dialoguescaffold,backgroundscaffoldandcontextscaffold.2)Enteringthesituation.Thisprocedureistoguidethestudentstoaquestionsituationandestablishasuitableandrealconditiontoenablestudentstoexploreindependently.What’smore,situationdesignedmustmeetstudents’interestsandcreativitywithinteractionactivities.Teachingsituationsshouldinclude:1)Situationbuiltupbymultimedia.Itisanessentialparttoshowteachingcontenttolearnersbyaudiomaterialandvideosoastoenterthesituationandtheroles.2)Situationbuiltupbyraisingquestions.ThequestionsshouldbedesignedwithinZPDandteachersshouldtrytocreatepositiveatmospheretostirupstudents’curiosityandinterestinEnglishsothatexpectedresultcanbecompleted.3)Situationbuiltupbyrealcases.Underrealcircumstance,learnerswillbedeeplyimpressedbytheteachingcontentandobtainabetterunderstandingviaactivitydesignandrolearrangement.Teachingcontextdesignedshouldmeetthedemandofstudentsofdifferentlevelssothatmoststudentscanengageinitandperformwell.3)Independentexplorations.Independentexplorationisthecentralpartofscaffoldinginstructions.Itmeanstoletstudentsexploreindependently.Theexplorationbeginswiththeguidanceofteachers.Initially,theguidanceandhelpmightbemuch,butbegraduallyreducedlater.Teachershelpstudentsestablishexplorationaimandlayaproperfoundationatthisphase.Sinceconstructivelearningtheorybelievesthatlearningisnotsimplyapassive13 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsprocessthatteachersimpartnewknowledgetostudentsbutaprocessthatstudentsconstructknowledgebythemselves.Later,teachersletstudentexploreandchoosemethodsforsolutions.4)Cooperativelearning.Byconsultationanddiscussionbetweenstudentsandteacherorbetweenstudentsandstudents,teamscanshareandexchangeideasandsolveproblemstogether.Therefore,teammemberscangaincomprehensiveandcomprehensibleknowledgeonthebasisofcooperativelearningsoastofinishconstructionofmeaningeventually.Beforediscussion,theteamleadergivesadefinitetaskandorganizesactivities.Whilediscussion,thewhole-classactivityrequirestheinvolvementofeachstudentintheclass.Theteacherisnotonlytheorganizerandguideroftheteachingbutalsotheparticipantandpartnerofstudents’activities.Heorshelistenstoeachgroup’sdiscussion,offersomehelpifnecessary.Finally,theconflictingopinionsgraduallybecomeclearthroughdiscussionandcommunication.Theygetarelativelycorrectresultandfinishthemeaningconstructionofthelearnedknowledge.Generallyspeaking,viacooperativelearningactivities,studentscanfosteracademiclevelsandincreasetheirconfidence.Inaddition,itisawayforstudentstolearninterpersonalskillsanddevelopthecapacitytoworkcollaboratively.5)Evaluation.Theevaluationmademainlyfromthreeaspectsincludestudents’autonomouslearningability,theircontributionsincooperativelearninggroupsandwhetherstudentscompletetheconstructionofmeaning.Evaluationcanbedividedintoteacher’sassessment,peerassessmentandself-assessment.Theteacher’sassessmentisthemostinfluential,sinceteachers’commentsaremoreobjectiveandpersuasive.Aftertheteachermakesomecommentsonstudents’performance.Studentscouldunderstandtheirlearningconditionandmakeadjustment.Self-assessmentisalsoveryimportantintheprocessofevaluation.“Studentshavetobeactiveintheirownlearningandunlesstheycometounderstandtheirownstrengthsandweakness,andhowtheymightdealwiththem,theywillnotmakeprogress.”(HarmerandJames,2000).Peerassessmentcanbegivenbyanindividualoragroup.Bythewrittenfeedback,questionnaires,studentswillknowtheirlearningfromanotherperspective,whichhelpslearnerstorecognizeeachother’sstrengthsandweaknessandlearnfromeachotherbycooperation.3.5ScaffoldingandtheConstructivismConstructivismisabranchofcognitivepsychologyandwasfirstputforwardbyJeanPiagetinthe1960s.“Theessenceofconstructivisttheoryistheideathatlearnersmustindividuallydiscoverandtransformcomplexinformationiftheyaretomakeittheirown.”(Anderson,Greeno,Reder,&Simon,2000;)Constructivismisabroadgroupoftheoriesthatelaboratesknowledgeacquisitionandlearningratherthanoneunifiedtheory.Ithasconnectionswithotherdomainssuchasphilosophy,socialscience,politicswhichbelievesthatlearnersreflecttheirownexperience14 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文andinformationreceived.Thedifferenttypesofconstructivistthinkingaregenerallyclassifiedaccordingtotheirmainemphases.Atoneextreme,itiscommonlybelievedthatindividuals,accordingtowhattheyalreadyknow,buildtheirpersonalrealizationoftheworld;TheotherextremeisatypeofradicalconstructivismsuchastheonesupportedbyscholarvonGlasersfeld.Heclaimsthat“knowledgeisaprocessandproductofthehumanbrainandthattheextenttowhichknowledgereflectsexternalrealitycannotthereforebedetermined.”(vonGlasersfeld2007).HerewewilldiscussthecategoriesofConstructivismthataremostrelevanttolearningandeducation–TrivialConstructivism,SocialConstructivismTrivialConstructivismholdsthatknowledgeacquisitionisanindividualprocesswhichlargelyreliesonpersonalmentalframeworksandprocesses.JeanPiaget(1896–1980)iscommonlyconsideredthepioneerandparentofTrivialConstructivist.SocialConstructivismemphasizestheroleplayedbysocietyandcultureinlearning.Inthiscategoryofconstructivistthought,cultureandsocialcommunitiesshapethemannerinwhichindividualsperceive,interpretandattachmeaningstotheirexperiences;Societyformshowandwhatpeoplethink.Knowledgeisconstructedinthecontextoftheenvironmentinwhichitisencountered.Inparticular,constructivistsarguethatknowledgeistheresultofsocialinteractionandlanguageuse.SocialConstructivismismostcloselyassociatedwiththeworkofLevVygotskywhosupportsclassroominstructionalmethodsthatemphasizecooperative’learning,project-basedlearninganddiscovery.Vygotskynotedthatsuccessfulproblemsolverstalkthemselvesthroughdifficultproblems.3.6ScaffoldingandKrashen’sComprehensibleInputComprehensibleInputstatesthat“inorderforacquirerstoprogresstothenextstageintheacquisitionofthetargetlanguage,theyneedtounderstandinputlanguagethatincludesastructurethatispartofthenextstage.”(KashenandTerrell1983:32)Krashenreferstothiswiththeformula“i+1”.“i”istheacquirer’slevelofcompetence.i+1isthestagefollowingialongsomenaturalorder.HerearecharacteristicsofComprehensibleInput.Firstofall,itconnectswithacquisitionandnotwithlearning.Second,peopleharvestlanguagebestwheninputisslightlybeyondpresentlevelofability.Besides,thespeakingabilityisnottaughtdirectlybutbyunderstandinginputafteracquirerhasthelinguisticability.Fourth,providedthatthereisadequatecomprehensibleinput,i+1willbeprovidedautomatically.3.7ScaffoldingandtheAffectiveFilterHypothesisTheAffectiveFilterHypothesiswasinitiallyputforwardbyDulayandBurtin1977.IntheirbookLanguageTwopublishedin1982,theydefinedAffectiveFilteras“aninternalsystemwhichimpedesorblockslanguageinputsubconsciously.”（Dulay&Burt1982）Krashendevelopedthistheoryonthebasisofpreviousresearches.InhisbookPrinciplesandPracticeinSecondLanguageAcquisition,hepointedoutthattheAffective15 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsFilterHypothesiswasakindofmentalbarrierwhichblockedlearnersfromdigestingtheirComprehensiveInputwhichmeansemotionpromotesorimpedestheintakeoftargetlanguage.(Krashen,1985)Thehypothesisisbuiltuponresearchesinsecondlanguageacquisition,whichhavedefinedthreekindsofaffectivevariableswithrespecttosecondlanguageacquisition.First,motivation.Fromtheperspectiveofsociolinguistics,motivationsforEFLlearningcanbedividedintointegrativemotivationandinstrumentalmotivation.ItisprovedthatbothcontributestosuccessfulEFLlearning.Second,self-confidence.Learnerswithself-confidenceandagoodpersonalimagearemorelikelytobemoresuccessfulbecausetheydaretoriskwithouthorrifyingwhenmakingmistakes.Third,anxiety.ResearchfromGardener(1976)suggeststhatthereisaninversecorrelationbetweenanxietyandlearningachievement.Anxiousacquirerhasahighaffectivefilter,whichwillstopacquisitionfromtakingplace.Therefore,lowpersonalanxietyandlowclassroomanxietyaremoreconductivetosecondlanguageacquisition.3.8SummaryoftheChapterTosumup,scaffoldinginstructionsmeansupportwithinZPDforlearningandproblemsolvinganditmightincludecluestodividetheproblemintostepsthathelpstudenttogrowindependentlyasalearner.ComprehensibleInputcontributesalottoprovidingtheoreticalguideforteacherstooffersupportwithinstudents’ZPD.BasedonConstructivism,studentsarenotpassivelearnerandtheyconstructtheirownknowledge.Buthowmuchknowledgetheyintakelargelydependonthemselves.Therefore,teachersshouldtakestudentsaffectionandattitudeintoconsiderationandtheAffectiveFilterHypothesisproviderelatedtheoreticalsupport.Inthischapter,thetheoreticalbackgroundofthispaperisintroducedmainly.Detailedresearchwillbepresentedinthenextchapterwiththeguidanceoftheoreticalframework.16 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter4Methodology4.1ResearchDesignInchaptersthree,theauthorhasreviewedrelatedtheoreticalframeworkaboutscaffoldinginstructionsaswellasEnglishgrammarteaching.ThetheoriesprovideassistanceandimplythatitisessentialandimportanttoapplyscaffoldinginstructionstoEnglishgrammarteaching.Inthischapter,thethesiscontainstheresearchquestions,subjects,instrumentsandproceduresoftheexperiment.Bothquantitativeandqualitativemethodsareappliedinthestudy.4.1.1ResearchQuestionsTheresearchquestionsarelistedbelow:1.Doscaffoldinginstructionshaveaneffectonarousingstudents’interestinEnglishgrammarlearning?2.ComparedwithPPP,canscaffoldinginstructionsimproveseniorhighschoolstudents’Englishgrammarability?3.Canscaffoldinginstructionscultivatethecooperation?4.WhatrolesdoEnglishsongsandfilmsplayinscaffoldinginstructions?4.1.2ResearchSubjectsThestudentswereselectedfromtwoparalleledclassesofGradeTwoinDalianNo.103seniorhighschool,LiaoningProvinceasexperimentalparticipants.Thesamplecapacityis90students.Class7isregardedasthecontrolledClass(CC)withatotalof43students;TheotheroneisClass8asExperimentalClass(EC)withatotalof47studentsastheExperimentalClass.Theteachingexperimentlastednearly4monthsfromSeptember,2015toJanuary,2016.Bothclassesaretaughtbytheauthorandbothhavealmostsimilargenderproportion,teachingpaceandthesamelearningmaterials.ThestudentsinDalianNO.103seniorhighschoolareinthemediumEnglishlevelaccordingtotheirperformanceintheirfirstyearscores.Moreover,beforestartingtheexperiment,theauthormadeapre-testinthesetwoclasses,andexpectedthatthetestingresultsdidn’tdiffer.Therefore,theauthorconcludedthatthetwoclassesareatthesamelevel.Theauthormadetheexperimentbyteachinggrammarinthetwoclasseswiththesameteachingmaterialandteachingcontent,butwithdifferentteachingapproaches,namelywithscaffoldinggrammarinstructionintheexperimentalclassandwithtraditionalPPPapproachinthecontrolledclass.4.1.3ResearchInstrumentsBothquantitativeandqualitativemethodsareappliedinthestudy.Inordertobetter17 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsunderstandthegrammarlevelofstudents,pre-testisusedandthescoresofthesetestswereanalyzedthroughSPSS.Toobtaininformationaboutstudents’performanceafterlearninggrammarbasedonscaffoldinginstruction,post-testisneeded.Intheend,theauthoranalyzescaffoldingbycomparisonandcontrastbetweenpre-testandpost-testresultsandthenarriveataconclusion.Therewasalsoaquestionnairetohelpconcludewhetherscaffoldinginstructionshaveaneffectonarousingstudents’interestedinEnglishgrammarlearningandwhethercooperationofstudentshaveenhanced?1.QuestionnaireThequestionnaireI(onAppendixI)wasdonefollowingthepre-test.QuestionnaireII(seequestionnaireIIpaperonAppendixII)wasdonefollowingtheexperiment.Bothoftheexperimentalclassandcontrolledclassweregivenaquestionnairetocheckthecurrentsituationofstudents’interestinEnglishgrammar.Questionnairesarehandedouttothestudentsandtheyarealltakenback.Thestudentswillbeaskedtocompletethequestionnairein10minutes,andberequiredtoanswertheitemshonestly.Thestudentswillbetoldthattheiranswerswillnotinfluencetheirfinalscorestoensuretheeffectivenessofthequestionnaires.ThequestionsinthequestionnaireshavebeenusedformanytimesinthesurveyoftheEnglishlearningbyEnglishteachersandsomeexperts,sothequestionnairesarevalidandreliable.ThedatathathavebeencollectedisanalyzedbyMicrosoftExcel2007.2.Thepre-testpaperandpost-testpaperInordertoseewhetherthestudents’grammaticalcompetenceinExperimentalClassandControlClassisatthesamelevel,anEnglishgrammartestisgiventobothECandCCbeforetheexperiment.Studentswererequiredtocompletethetestwithin30minutes.Thetestconsistsof3sections.Thefirstsectionisashortpassagewheretenwordsshouldbefilledinappropriateformstomakethesentencesgrammaticallycorrect.Thesecondsectionisproof-readingwithtenerrors.Thelastsectionistranslationrequiredtobedonewithspecificgrammarrequirement.Finally,theteacherscoredthepaperandcollecteddataaboutpre-testresultandprovethatthetwoclassesareinthesamelevel.Afterafour-monthexperiment,anotherEnglishgrammartestwasarrangedtobothExperimentalClassandControlclass.Datawascollectedandanalyzedtoseewhetherscaffoldinginstructionscanimproveseniorhighschoolstudents’EnglishgrammarlevelcomparedwithPPP.Thepost-testwillcontainquestionsofdifferenttypes,whichconsistsofblankfilling,multiplechoices,translationanderrorcorrection.4.2ResearchProceduresInordertoavoidthedisturbanceofunrelatedfactors,apartfromthedifferenceofteachingmethods,thetwoclassesregardedasresearchsubjectsusedthesametextbook,spentthesameperiodoftimeinhavingclass(45minutesperclassand5classesperweek).Theexperimentalstepsarediscussedasbelow.18 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文4.2.1QuestionnaireIandaPre-testThestudentsfrombothECandCCwereaskedtofillinaquestionnairepriortothepre-testanddoapre-test.10minuteswasspentonthequestionnaireand30minuteswasonthepre-test.QuestionnaireI(seenfromAppendixI)contains13questions.Inordertoexplorestudents’attitudetowardsEnglish,theauthordesignthefirsttwoquestions.Question3to6aredesignedtoexplorestudents’interestandinitiativeinlearninggrammar.Question7toquestion10aremadetobetterunderstandthecurrentteachingsituationingrammarclassandstudents’learningmethodandlearningeffectcanberevealedfromquestion11-13.Basedontheresult,itisapparentthattherewasnoobviousdifferencebetweentheECandtheCCingrammarandtheirattitudestowardsEnglishgrammarlearning.4.2.2TeachingProceduresThefollowingsectionrevealshowtoapplyscaffoldinginstructionsinEnglishgrammar.Intheexperimentalclass,thescaffoldinginstructionswereappliedwhileinthecontrolledclass,thetraditionalPPPteachingmethodwasusedwithinfourmonths.AccordingtotheteachingtheoryofConstructivism,theteachingprocessofscaffoldinginstructioninvolves:(1)providingscaffolds(2)enteringthesituation(3)independentexplorations(4)cooperativestudy(5)evaluationTakesubjunctivemoodinModule5book6forexample,exploringhowtoapplyscaffoldinginstructionsingrammarteaching.1）ProvidingScaffolds.BuildupconceptualframeworkonthebasisofComprehensibleInput.Theteachingframeworkbuiltsurroundsthepresentlearningthemebutalittlehigherthanstudents’cognitivelevelandEnglishmaterialsshouldhavearticulatepronunciationandrichexpressions.AccordingtoAffectiveFilterHypothesis,EnglishfilmsandsongsareintroducedtoEFLclass.Becauselyricsandsubtitlescanbetransformedintodifferenttypesofactivities,suchasblankfilling,paraphrase,topicdiscussionandimitation,timeconsumedforprovidingscaffoldsdependsonthecircumstances.However,materialsselectedshouldconformtosomerules.Firstofall,thecontentofmaterialsshouldbehealthyandpositivewithoutviolenceorpornorgraphy.Teachingwithsongsandfilmscannotonlycontributetogrammarlearning,butalsoaffectstudentsartisticallyandculturally.Otherwise,itwillbemisleading.Besides,whenselectingmaterials,students’interestsandmentalfeaturesshouldbetakenintoconsideration.Forseniorhighschoolstudentswhoseabstractthinkinghavebeenimproved,sciencefictionanddocumentaryfilmscanbeadoptedsoastoarriveatabetterlearningresult.Moreover,underarelaxingatmosphere,studentstakeapositiveattitudetowardslearningwithmuchconfidenceandlessanxietyandtheeffectivenessoflearningisimproved.a.TeachersshouldpreparedsomeEnglishsongsandlyricsbeforehand.Butthelyricswerehandledbytheteacherinadvanceandreplacethepredicatewhichmanifeststhesubjunctivemoodwithblanks.Studentsareaskedtofillintheblanksaccordingtopreviousexperience19 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsandtips.b.ListentotheEnglishsong“Ifyouweretheonlygirlintheworld”.Studentsareaskedtofillintheblanksagainwhenlisteningtothemusicandthenchecktheanswerwhichwashighlightedbytheteacherinredcolor.Studentswillleaveadeepimpressiononthered-coloredpart.Sincestudentshavelearnedrealconditionalsentence,thefirsttimetheyfillintheblanksbasedonpreviousexperience--realconditionalsentence.ThesecondtimetheyfillinblanksbasedonwhattheyheardfromtheEnglishsong.Theremustbeacontradictionandthat’stheZoneofProximalDevelopment.Lyricsareasbelow：IfI___theonlygirlintheworld(be)Andyou____theonlyboy(be)Nothingelse______matterintheworldtoday(will)WecouldgoonlovinginthesameoldwayAgardenofEdenjustmadefortwoWithnothingtoharmourjoyI_____saysuchwonderfulthingstoyou(will)There_____besuchwonderfulthingstodo(will)IfweretheonlygirlintheworldAndyouweretheonlyboy...2）EnteringtheSituationQuestioncontextcanbedividedintoconflictivequestioncontextandstepwisequestioncontext.Conflictivecontextaimsatcausingtheimbalanceofstudents’comprehensionefficiently.Stepwisequestioncontextfocusonthedesignofcontext.Problemsituationshouldbefromeasytodifficultandstepbystepandteachersshoulddivideacomplexproblemintoseveralsimplequestionsorsteps,makingstudentseasytoaccept.Thispaperusesthestepwisequestionsituation.IfIweretheonlygirlintheworldAndyouweretheonlyboyNothingelsewouldmatterintheworldtoday...IwouldsaysuchwonderfulthingstoyouTherewouldbesuchwonderfulthingstodoTask1：readthelyricsandanswerquestions.Question1Thesentencesreferto___A.AnimaginarysituationinthepresentorfutureB.Arealsituationinthepresentorfuture20 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Question2Intheifpartofthesentence,weuse____AthepasttenseBthepresenttenseQuestion3Weuse____insteadofwillinthemainclause.Task2.SharethelyricsofaanothersongIfeveryonecared,strengthentheirunderstandingofSubjunctivemood.Ifeveryonecaredandnobodycried如果每个人都学会关心，没有人哭泣Ifeveryonelovedandnobodylied如果每个人都有爱心，没有人撒谎Ifeveryonesharedandswallowedtheirpride如果每个人都乐于分享，放下自己的骄傲We’dseethedaywhennobodydied那么我们将看到没有人死亡的一天Questions：Isthisarealsituation?Isthissituationatpresentorinthepast?(fromthelyrics)However,whattenseweuse?(subordinateclause,mainclause)Whatdoesthesingerwanttoexpressfromthelyrics?Fromtask1andtask2,studentsmakeajudgementthatunderimaginaryorsubjunctivesituation,theycanusepasttensetorepresentpresenttense.3）IndependentexplorationThefirsttwostepsofScaffoldingenablestudentstoformapreliminaryconceptualtheories.Independentexplorationandcooperativestudyhelpstudentstosolveproblemsofspecificcontextandobtainknowledgefromexperience.Blank-fillingexercise1.Iamnottheheadofthelaboratory.IfI____(be),I_____(notallow)thisresearch.2.Shefeelslonelyinthatschool.Ifhe____(make)morefriends,she_____(notbe)solonely.3.Everyoneisfrightenedofthemonster,Ifhe___(notbe)sougly,they_____(notbe)sofrightened.4)CooperativeStudyAfterindependentexploration,studentsconstructknowledgeandarealsoconfrontedwithproblemsthatcan’tbesolvedalone.Therefore,cooperativestudyisanopportunityforstudentstoexchangetheirideasandopinionsandfinallyreachaconsensus.Hereistheconclusion:“If+subject+did(were),subject+could/should/would/might+baseverb”Sincetherearetwomoreformsofconditionalsentencesinthesubjunctivemoodtoexplore,morescaffoldsareneeded.If+subjective+haddonesth,subject+could/should/would/might+havedone;21 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsif+subjectdid(wereto/shoulddo),subject+could/should/would/might+baseverb.Inordertoprovidescaffoldsagainandcreatequestioncontext,theauthorchooseasectionfromthefilm“GoodbyeMrLoser”.Afterwatchingthefilm,theteachersaid:“Theplotisanimaginarysituationsothatwecanusesubjunctivemood,right?”SotheteachershowedsentencesonthePPT,forexample:IfXiaLuohadstudiedhard,hewouldhavegonetouniversity.IfXiaLuowereasuccessfulman,hisclassmateswouldn’tlookdownuponhim.IfXiaLuoweretobegivenanotheropportunity,hewouldcherishedwhathepossesses.Becausethesentencestructuresaredifferentfromwhattheyjustlearnt.Studentsmaybeconfusedandsuspicious.Thentheteacherasks:Question1Isthisasituationinthepresent,inthepastorinthefuture?Sentence1_________________.Sentence2_________________.Sentence3_________________.Question2However,whattenseweuse?(subordinateclausemainclause)Sentence1:subordinateclause___________,mainclause___________.Sentence2:subordinateclause___________,mainclause___________Sentence3:subordinateclause___________,mainclause___________IndependentExplorationBasedonthefilmplotandthethreesentences,studentsexplorethequestionsaboveindependently.CooperativeStudyBygroupdiscussionandconsultation,studentsexcludedisputablequestionsandreachaconsensus.Alsostudentscanconstructknowledgecomprehensivelyandcorrectly.Herearethestructures:If+subjective+haddonesth,subject+could/should/would/might+havedone;If+subjectdid(wereto/shoulddo),subject+could/should/would/might+baseverbTask1Basedonthefilmplot,makesentenceswithsubjunctivemoodTask2Blank-fillingexerciseFillintheblanksandhighlightthewordsrepresentingsubjunctivemood.Ifafacecouldlaunchathousandships,thenwhereamItogo?There"snoonehomebutyou,You"reallthat"sleftmeto.Andwhenmyloveforlifeisrunningdry,youcomeandpouryourselfonme.Ifaman______betwoplacesatonetime,(can)I_____withyou.(willbe)22 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Tomorrowandtoday,besideyoualltheway.Iftheworld_____stoprevolvingspinningslowlydowntodie,(should)I____theendwithyou.(willspend)Andwhentheworld___through,(be)Thenonebyonethestars___allgoout,(will)thenyouandI____simplyflyaway(will)(fromthesong“If”)Task31)Appreciatethesongandlearntosingthesong“if”.2)Basedonthemelody,studygroupscreatelyricswithsubjunctivemood.3)Invitestudentstosingthesong.5)Evaluation.Theevaluationmademainlyfromthreeaspectsincludestudents’autonomouslearningability,theircontributionsincooperativelearninggroupsandwhetherstudentscompletetheconstructionofmeaning.Evaluationcanbedividedintoteacher’sassessment,self-assessmentandpeerassessment.TeachingproceduresinCCScaffoldinginstructionsareappliedinECclass,whilePPPapproachwasadoptedinCCclass.PPPapproachappearedundertheinfluenceofCommunicativeLanguageTeachinginthe1970sandtheproceduresofPPPare:presentation,practiceandproduction.Atthepresentationstage,theteacherfirstintroducedthenewknowledgetostudentsandarousestudents’interestfornewsentencestructureandgrammar.Thentheteacherhelpsstudentstofocusontheunderstandingofthenewlanguage.Atthepracticestage,theteachergivesstudentstheopportunitytopracticeandencouragestudentstoapplythenewknowledgesoastograspthelanguagepointsaccurately.Thelaststage--theproductionstageatwhichstudentsaredemandedtoapplywhattheyhavejustlearntcreativelyandflexibly.HereisasamplelessonwiththetraditionalPPPapproachandtheteachingcontentisalsothesubjunctivemood.Stage1:Warming-upⅠ.Atthebeginningofthelesson,theteachershowstheposterofthemovieTitanicandthesentenceisshownonthePPT“Ifyoujump,Iwilljump.”ThentheteachershowsapictureofthebookThreedaystoseeandshowsthesentence“IfHelenKellerwasalivetoday,hereyesmightbeencured.”Afterstudentsthinkforawhilethequestion“what’sthedifferencebetweenthetwosentences?”Theteacherintroducedthemaincontentofthelesson--thesubjunctivemood.Theteachertellsstudentsthatthefirstsentencebelongstoifrealconditionalsentence23 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsdescribingarealcondition.Thesecondsentenceissubjunctivemood--unrealconditionalsentence.Stage2:PresentationⅠ.TeacherpresentedthreetypesofHypotheticalconditionalsentenceswithifontheblackboard:Ifsb./sth.Sb./Sth.Presentwere/didcould/would/shoulddoPasthaddonecould/would/shouldhavedoneFuturewereto/shoulddocould/would/shoulddoⅡ.Teacherexplainedeachstructurerespectively.Thepresentsubjunctivemooddescribesconditionsthatareuntrueorhypotheticalnow;Pastpresentsubjunctivemooddescribesconditionsthatwereunrealoruntrueinthepast;Andfuturesubjunctivemooddescribesfutureevents.Ⅲ.Aftertheexplanations,teachergavesomeexamplestomakestudentsunderstandthegrammarrules.1.IfIhadatimemachine,IwouldtraveltoTangDynasty.(Theteacherexplainedthat“sinceIcan’tgetatimemachinenow,thisisasubjunctiveconditionthatisuntrueorhypotheticalnow.Wewillusepresentsubjunctivemood.”)2.IfYiQuhadn’tfalleninlovewithMinYue,hewouldn’thavedied.(Ofcourse,YiQulovedMinYueandthisisastoryhappenedinancienttimes.Pastpresentsubjunctivemoodisusedtodescribeconditionsthatwereunrealoruntrueinthepast3.IfIweretoflytothemoon,Iwouldnotcomeback.(Thissentenceisusedtodescribeafutureeventswithlittlepossibilitytooccur.Therefore,futuresubjunctivemoodisneeded.)Stage3:PracticeTheteachersummarizedsomepointsandaskstudentstodosomeexercises.Errorcorrectionexercise1.IfIamafish,Icouldswimfreelyinthesea.2.Shallyoubefired,yourhealthcareandotherbenefitswouldnotbeimmediatelycutoff.3.Ihadbeenbusy.Otherwise,Imusthavecometothepartyyesterday.4.Hadyoutoldmeearlier,Iwouldfinishthetaskaheadoftime.Blankfillingexercise1.Iftheworld-war___(break)outagain,what____(happen)toourpeopleonearth?2.Ifthepoliceman_____(benot)inthatroomnow,it______(be)verydangerous.3.IfTom____(be)morecarefulintheexam,he____(pass)italready.4.Ifyou____(get)upearlier,you_____(catch)thefirsttrain.5.Iftheworld-war____(break)outagain,what____(happen)toourpeopleonearth?6.IfTom__(be)morecarefulintheexam,he__(pass)italready.Stage4:Production24 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Atthisstage,teachersprovideexercisefocusingonreallifecommunication.Studentsareencouragedtoexercisebravelywithoutworryingmakingmistakes.Practice--Makesentenceswithtwophraseswhicharelogicallyrelatedtoeachother.Useunrealconditionals.becaughtintherainknowwhattodotakemyadvicemakerapidprogresshaveenoughmoneymakeamistakeworkhardwalkmydoggetupearlygoabroadbecarefulintheexamgototheconcertcatchtheearlybusstayathomeForexample:Ifyouhadworkedhard,youwouldhavemaderapidprogress.Stage5:SummaryandhomeworkassignmentSummarizethelanguagepointsandwriteacompositionwithsubjunctivemood.4.2.3QuestionnaireIIandaPost-testAfterthetest,thereisanotherquestionnaireabouttheviewpointsofstudentstowardsscaffoldinginstructionstoexplorewhetherscaffoldinginstructionscanimprovestudents’learningenthusiasmandinterest,whetheritenablesstudentstodevelopcooperationcapabilityandimprovegrammarlearningmethod,whatrolesEnglishsongsandfilmsplayinscaffoldinginstructions.ThequestionnaireIIwashandedoutonlyintheExperimentalClassbecausescaffoldinginstructionswereonlyadoptedinEC.While,thestudentsinboththeExperimentalClassandtheControlClasswererequiredtoattendthepost-testpapersothattestresultscanbeusedtoprovewhethertheEnglishgrammarcompetencehasbeenimprovedinEC.4.2.4DataCollectionThedataforthestudyincludedquestionnaireresults,grammartestscores.Thegrammartestsincludepre-testandpost-testwhichareimplementedwithin30minutesrespectivelyintheexperimentalclassandthecontrolledclass.Studentsarerequiredtocompletethetestindependentlyandhandovertogether.Twoexperiencedteachersareinvitedtoscorethepapersoastoensuretheauthenticityandreliabilityofthegrammarperformance.Beforetheexperimentandaftertheexperiment,questionnaireIandquestionnaireIIweredemandedtofillintobetterunderstandstudents’views.4.2.5SummaryoftheChapterChapterfouristhemainpartofthewholethesis,inwhichtheauthortriestocollectdataofresearchquestions.Thewholeprocessoftargetresearchincludesresearchdesign,two25 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsquestionnairesusedbeforeandaftertheexperimentintheexperimentalgroup.Inthefollowingchapter,theresultsofdatawillbeanalyzed.26 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Chapter5ResultsandDiscussion5.1AnalysisofResultsofQuestionnaire5.1.1AnalysisofResultsofQuestionnaireITable5.1Dataanalysisonstudents’attitudeAgreeStronglyitemsclassagreeneutraldisagreestronglydisagreeEC06.38%23.4%48.94%21.27%Question1Idon’tknowwhyIlearnEnglish.CC2.13%4.26%20.93%46.81%19.15%Question2IbelieveIcanEC2.13%4.26%12.77%55.32%25.53%learnEnglishwellwithoutlearninggrammar.CC2.13%8.51%10.64%55.81%20.93%Inordertoexplorestudents’attitudetowardsEnglish,theauthordesignthefirsttwoquestions.Asisshownabove,moststudentsknowwhytheylearnEnglish.(70.21%studentsinEC,72.09%inCC).ThatmeanstheylearnEnglishwithdefiniteaimsandgoals.While23.4%studentsinECand20.93%inCCareinadilemmathattakeaneutralattitude.Thesestudentsaccountforsuchabigpercentagethatteachersneedtocommunicatewiththemandhelpthemchangetheirattitudeandlearnactively.AstotheimportanceofEnglishgrammar,itisobviousthatmoststudentsbelievewithoutlearninggrammartheycan’tlearningEnglishwell(EC:55.32%,CC:55.81%).25.53%inECand20.93%inCCstronglydisagreewiththedenialofgrammar.Table5.2Dataanalysisonstudents’interestandinitiativeAgreeStronglyitemsclassagreeneutraldisagreestronglydisagreeQuestion3EC6.38%19.15%25.53%19.15%29.79%Iaminterestedinlearninggrammar.CC4.26%17.02%19.15%25.53%25.53%Question4EC12.76%25.53%23.40%21.28%17.02%Besidesthehomeworkandexercisehandedoutbymyteacher,IcanfindsomeCC10.64%19.15%25.53%19.15%17.02%learningmaterialbymyself.Question5EC31.91%31.91%17.02%14.89%4.26%Whenmyteacherexplaining27 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsgrammar,IcanconcentrateCC27.66%29.79%10.64%14.89%8.51%onit.Question6EC19.15%29.79%21.28%21.28%8.51%ThefactthatIdistractismainlybecausethegrammarteachingisboring.CC14.89%27.66%19.15%23.40%6.38%Question3-6aredesignedtoexplorestudents’interestandinitiativeinlearninggrammar.25.53%studentsinECand23.26%inCClikegrammarandhalfofthestudentsdislikegrammarwith48.94%inECand55.81%inCCrespectively.Duetolackofinterest,theresultsofquestion3isinproportiontoquestion4withasmallproportionofstudentslearningextramaterialsafter-class.However,whenaskingstudentswhethertheycanconcentrateongrammarclass,itisrelievedtoseethestatisticsabovethat63.83%studentcanconcentrateonlearninginECclassandstudentsinCCenjoyasimilarpercentage--62.79%.Question6isdesignedtoexplorewhethertheboringgrammarteachingisthereasonforstudents’distraction.48.9%studentsfromECand46.51%fromCCadmitit.Table5.3DataanalysisoncurrentteachingsituationingrammarclassAgreeStronglyitemsclassAgreeneutraldisagreestronglydisagreeQuestion7EC31.91%53.19%10.64%2.13%2.13%Ilearngrammarmainlydependingonmyteachers’explanation.CC30.24%55.81%9.30%4.65%0Question8EC27.66%31.91%10.64%17.02%12.77%IlearngrammarwithafeelingofpassiveacceptionCC23.26%30.23%16.29%16.27%13.95%insteadofactivelearning.Question9EC40.43%36.17%4.26%13.38%5.76%Ilearngrammarrulesbyteacher’ssummarization.CC46.51%34.88%2.33%11.63%4.65%Question10EC19.15%29.79%10.64%34.04%6.38%IamaccustomedtotheteachingmethodofmyCC20.93%30.23%11.63%27.91%9.30%teacher.Question7toquestion10aremadetobetterunderstandthecurrentteachingsituationingrammarclass.Moststudentslearngrammarmainlyrelyonteacher’sinstructionandassistance,whichtakesup85.1%inECand86.05%inCC.What’smore,76.6%students28 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文learngrammarrulesbythesummarizationoftheirteacherinECand81.39%inCC.Undersuchteachingsituation,overhalfofthestudents,bothinECandCC,possessapassivefeelingandsuchemotionmayleadtothelackofthesenseofaccomplishment.However,sincestudentshavereceivedsuchaneducationalmodelformanyyears.Intheirmind,thoughthemethodisboringandstudentsarepassive,theystillbelieveit’seffectiveandsomestudentshavebeenaccustomedtoit.That’swhyteachersneedtointroduceanewmethodtobroadenstudents’horizonandimprovetheirattitudetogrammar.Table5.4ComparisonbetweenECandCCitemsclass0-25%25%-50%50-75%75%-100%Question11EC36.18%31.91%25.53%6.38%Afterstudying,howmuchgrammarknowledgecanCC30.23%30.23%32.56%6.98%yougrasp?Table5.5ComparisonbetweenECandCCStronglyStronglyitemsclassagreeneutraldisagreeagreedisagreeEC25.53%31.91%21.28%21.28%0Question12IlearngrammarbyroteCC27.91%23.26%23.26%20.92%4.65%Question13EC10.64%26.87%19.94%31.91%10.64%IbelievethetimeandenergyIspendongrammarisproportionalCC11.63%24.63%14.9%34.88%13.96%tothelearningresultThoughstudentsbelievetheyhavebeenaccustomedtothetraditionalmethod,theauthorstillneedtoprovewhetheritiseffective.Herearethreequestionstotestifyandtheresultsarebelow.Question11discussesthepercentageofgrammarknowledgecanbemasteredbystudentsafterteaching.68.09%studentsmasterlessthanhalfofthelearningcontent.Besides,theresultofquestion13provethatstudentsdon’tlearngrammareffectivelyenough.Studentsdon’tharvestenoughfruitsafterspendingrelativelymoretimeandenergy.Furthermore,overhalfofthestudentslearngrammarbyrotewhichisinappropriate.Therefore,measuresmustbetakentosolvethepresentproblems.That’swhytheauthorintroducedanewteachinginstruction-scaffoldinghopingtogetridofthecurrentdilemma.29 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructions5.1.2AnalysisofResultsofQuestionnaireIIAfterthetest,thereisanotherquestionnaireabouttheviewpointsofstudentstowardsscaffoldinginstructionstoexplorewhetherscaffoldinginstructioncanimprovestudents’learningenthusiasmandinterest,whetheritenablesstudentstodevelopcooperationcapability.47questionnaireswerehandedoutonlyintheExperimentalClassbecausescaffoldingteachingwasonlyappliedinthisclassandtheywerealltakenback.Table5.6Analysisonstudents’interestinECClassAgreeStronglyitemsagreeneutraldisagreestronglydisagreeIfeelmorecomfortableandsaferunderscaffoldingEC42.55%27.66%14.89%8.51%6.38%instructionatmosphereWithscaffoldinginstruction,grammarclassbecomesmoreEC44.68%29.79%12.77%8.51%4.26%interesting.IammoreinvolvedingrammarclassandanswerEC38.30%31.91%6.38%14.89%8.51%questionsmoreactivelyTheresultsofthequestionnaireshowthatscaffoldinginstructioncanarousestudents’interestinEnglishgrammar.Inthescaffoldinginstruction,amajorityofstudents(74.47%)donotfeelgrammarisdullsothattheycantakeinitiativeinclass.Comparedwiththefactthat25.53%studentsinEClikegrammarinquestionnaireI,Itisapparentthatscaffoldinginstructionscanarousestudents’interestinEnglishgrammar.Besides,withasenseofsafetyandcomfort,studentsaremoreinvolvedandmoreactive.Table5.7Analysisonstudents’cooperationabilityAgreeStronglyitemsclassagreeNeutraldisagreestronglydisagreeGroupcooperationcanEC31.91%25.53%17.02%14.90%10.64%facilitategrammarlearningThenewmethodcandevelopcooperationandEC34.04%27.66%12.77%23.40%2.53%communicationabilitiesmoreeasilycomparedwithPPP.Iammoremotivatedundermycompanions’supportandEC38.30%23.40%10.64%10.64%17.02%encouragementIliketopresentquestionsandexpressmyopinionsinmyEC40.42%19.15%21.28%12.77%6.38%group30 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文Underscaffoldinginstructions,groupcooperationisanessentialprocedure.Fromthetableabove,itreveals61.7%studentbelievethenewmethodcandevelopmycooperationandcommunicationabilitiesmoreeasilycomparedwithPPP.61.7%studentsaremoremotivatedundermycompanions’supportandencouragement.Twoheadsarebetterthanone.Studentscanexchangetheirviewsandsharetheirmethodandunderstandingwithingroup.Whenconfrontedwithdifficulties,studentsaremorelikelytopresentquestionsandweakpointsingroups.Likewise,effectivegroupcooperationcanalsofacilitategrammarlearning.Table5.8Analysisonstudents’attitudetoScaffoldinginstructionAgreeStronglyitemsclassagreeneutraldisagreestronglydisagreeIhopemyteachercontinueEC25.53%38.30%10.64%6.38%6.38%adoptingthenewmethod.ThenewmethodismoreeffectivethantraditionalEC38.29%23.40%6.38%17.02%14.89%method.ThecapacityofconnectinggrammarlearningwithrealityhasbeenimprovedEC36.17%34.04%12.77%6.38%10.64%underScaffoldinginstructions.IcanactivelyputgrammarknowledgeintotheEC38.29%21.28%21.28%14.89%4.26%applicationofspeakingandwriting.Thestatisticsrevealsthat63.83%studentsinEChopetheteachercontinueadoptingthenewmethodand61.7%studentsbelievethenewmethodismoreeffectivethantraditionalmethod.Theyhavearefreshedcomprehensionofgrammarlearning.Grammarstudyingconnectingwithrealitycanbeflexibleandrealistic.Itcanberevealedwhenputtinggrammarknowledgeintotheapplicationofspeakingandwriting.59.57%studentsarewillingtodothat.31 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsTable5.9AnalysisontherolesofEnglishsongsandfilmsAgreeStronglyitemsclassagreeneutraldisagreestronglydisagreeIbelieveEnglishsongsandfilmscanhelpeaseone’sEC48.94%42.55%8.51%00anxietyandfatigueIliketolearngrammarbyappreciatingEnglishfilmsEC31.91%25.54%21.28%14.89%6.38%orsongsIbelievethatapplyingEnglishsongsandfilmsisEC29.79%44.68%6.38%6.38%0helpfulforgrammarlearningOver80percentstudentsbelievethatmusicandfilmareeffectivewaystoreleasetensionandeasefatigueand57.45%studentsliketolearngrammarbyappreciatingEnglishfilmsorsongs.Approximately74%studentsthinkthatteachingactivitieswiththeassistanceofsongsormusicisofbenefits.while,6.38%studentstakeaneutralstandandothersdisagree.AfteranalyzingthestatisticsofquestionnaireIandquestionnaireII,wecanconclude:Firstofall,comparedwithtraditionalteachingmethod,scaffoldinginstructionhasaneffectonimprovingstudents’initiativeofgrammarlearning.Studentsbecomemoreinterestedingrammar.What’smore,underscaffoldinginstruction,studentshaveimprovedtheircooperationabilitiesandstudentshaverealizedthesignificanceofgroupcooperation.Moreover,studentsgraduallytransformtheirlearningmethodfromrotetoflexibleapplicationbystrengtheningtheconnectionbetweentheoryandpractice,betweengrammarandlisteningaswellasspeaking.WhenitcomestoapplyingEnglishfilmsandsongs,moststudentsexpresstheiraffirmativeattitude.TheyliketolearngrammarbyappreciatingEnglishfilmsorsongs,duetothefactthatEnglishsongsandfilmsononehandcanhelpeaseone’sanxietyandfatigue,ontheotherhandishelpfulforgrammarlearning.5.2AnalysisofScoresofPre-testandPost-test5.2.1AnalysisofScoresofPre-testIntheresearch,resultsfrompre-testandpost-testhavebeenanalyzedbyquantitativeanalysis.Thedataofpre-testandpost-testwasconductedbyIndependentSampleTestofSPSS.Someinformationisdisplayedinthefollowingtables(seeTable5.10,Table5.11).Table5.10Meansofpre-testsofECandCCMeanValueStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanEC25.63105.645050.87105CC25.30435.506040.8118232 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文TheMeanvalueoftheExperimentalclassis25.6310andtheMeanvalueoftheControlledClassis25.3043.TheStandardDeviationsofECandCCare5.64505and5.50604separately.AllthestatisticsrevealsthatstudentsfrombothECandCCareatthesamegrammarlevel.Table5.11IndependentsamplesT-testFsigtdfSigMeanStd.Errordifference1.3190.97.27484.840.785.326601.19071AsisshowninTable4-2,IndependentsamplesT-testresultsfromECandCCindicatethat(t=0.274,p=0.785>0.5),whichmeansthereisnosignificantdifferencebetweenECandCCinpre-testresults.5.2.2AnalysisofScoresofPost-testTable5.12Meansofpost-testsofECandCCMeanValueStd.DeviationStd.ErrorMeanEC26.952455.590510.86263CC24.42394.610340.67976Table5.12presentssomeinformationofECandCC.TheaveragescoreofECis26.9584andtheaveragescoreofCCis24.4239.ComparedwiththeCC,theexperimentalclasshasmadegreatprogress.Table5.13IndependentsamplesT-testFsigtdfSigMeanStd.Errordifference1.3190.2542.322860.0232.528471.0887ItisrevealedfromtheIndependentsamplesT-testthattheperformanceofECisbetterthanthatofCC(t=2.322,P=.023<05)whichindicatesthatscaffoldinginstructionshaveapositiveeffectonstudents’grammarperformance.33 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsChapter6Conclusion6.1MajorFindingsAccordingtothetheoryofConstructivism,theAffectiveFilterHypothesisandKrashen’sComprehensibleInput,scaffoldinginstructionswereappliedtohighschoolEnglishgrammarclassroom.Researchiscarriedoutthroughteachingexperimentandquestionnaire.Basedontheresearchresultsandexperienceaccumulatedintheprocessofapplyingthemodel,theauthorsummarizesthefollowingmajorfindings.Firstofall,scaffoldinginstructionscanimprovehighschoolstudents’Englishgrammar.Scaffoldinginstructionsasakindofbrand-neweducationalnotionisguidedbyconstructivism.ThedesignoftasksisbasedonthecurrentcognitiveabilityofstudentsandtheZoneofProximalDevelopmentwhichaimsatguidingstudentstoconstructknowledgegraduallyandorderlyandhelpingstudentstomakethetransitiontoahighercognitivelevel.Afterfourmonths’teachingexperiment,studentsfromtheexperimentalclassEnglishenjoyanobviousincreaseingrammarscorewhichisprovenbyindependentsamplesT-test.Scaffoldinginstructionsissuperiortotraditionalteachingmodeandtheproperuseofscaffoldinginstructionscanimprovestudents’Englishgrammarability.What’smore,scaffoldinginstructionshaveaneffectonhelpingstudentstobemoreactiveandinterestedinEnglishgrammarlearning.Scaffoldinginstructionsprovidesstudentswithguidanceandassistancewhichareinaccordancewiththecognitivelevelofstudentsandithelpslearnerstocompleteataskindependentlyintheend,thusenablingstudentstodevelopfromalowleveltoahigherlevel.Students,toacertainextent,achievesuccesswhichwillarousetheenthusiasmoflearningEnglishandhelpstudentsmaintainakeeninterestinlearninggrammar.Moreover,Scaffoldinginstructionscancultivatethecooperationabilitiesofstudents.Scaffoldinginstructionsemphasizesthatstudentisthecenterofteachingandencouragesstudentstolearncollaboratively.Throughcooperationbetweenstudentsandbetweenstudentsandtheteachers,studentssharetheharvestofindependentexplorationanddealwiththeconfusionandproblemsencounteredintheprocessofexploration.Bysharingtheachievementsofthinking,teammembersarrivedatamorecomprehensiveandcorrectunderstanding,whichmeansknowledgeconstruction.Nowitcomestothelastquestion:therolesofEnglishfilmsandsongs.Basedonthestatisticscollectedfromquestionnaires,Englishsongsandfilmscontributealottostimulatelearners’interest,releasestudents’tensionandhelpbuildupaharmoniousteacher-studentrelationship.Consequently,itwillbebeneficialforgrammarteaching.6.2LimitationsoftheStudy1)TheauthorlacksexperienceinEnglishteaching.Duetothefactthatscaffoldingisaprocessof“decentralization”ofwhichthespeedlargelyreliesonteachers’teachingwitand34 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文experience.Therefore,itisasubjectiveprocesswhichhashigherrequirementsonteachers.So,withlessteachingexperience,theremustbesomeshortcomingsinthedesignofEnglishgrammar,students’interactivearrangementsandthecontrolofclassroom.Scaffoldinginstructionsfailtoplayitsrolefully.2)Materialsforsettingupscaffoldsarenotenough.BecausetheauthorsetsupscaffoldswithEnglishsongsandmovies,thematerialsmustberelevanttolanguagepointsorgrammarpoints.Inaddition,thelyricsinsongsanddialogueinthemoviemustbeatthestudent’slevelofunderstandingsoastoensurethatstudentsunderstandandrememberthecoreofthelanguagepoints.Moreover,themeofmaterialsshouldbepositiveandstudentscanappreciatethebeautyofartifasongwithabeautifulmelody.Materialscanmeetsuchdemandisfarfromenough,thereforemorematerialsareneededtoguaranteetheteachingandlearningperformance.3)Theexperimentalsamplerangeissmallwithinalimitedtime.TheEnglishteachingexperimentlastedforonesemester.However,thereareonly12lessonsaboutteachingnewgrammarwhichmeansthatchancesofapplyingscaffoldinginstructionsingrammarisrelativelyinsufficient.Besides,theexperimentalsamplerangeissmall--90studentsfromexperimentalclassandcontrolledclass.Inthelightofthelimitationsoftimeandcondition,theauthorcan’tselectsubjectsinalargerscopeandcan’tdoteachingexperimentinalarge-scale.AlthoughthescaffoldinginstructionsplayanimportantroleinenhancingtheefficiencyofEnglishgrammarlearninginexperimentalclass,thereisadisparitybetweentheresultandtheexpectedeffect.Hence,ifthereisanopportunityinthefuture,theauthorhopetobeabletohavealongertimetoverifythescaffoldinginstructioninhighschoolEnglishgrammarteaching.6.3SuggestionsforFutureResearchThisresearchhaselaboratedtherolesofscaffoldingandEnglishsongsaswellasEnglishfilms.However,theresearchisonlypreliminaryandmoreresearchesaresupposedtobedoneinthenearfutureinordertopopularizethisteachingmodel.Thereareseveralsuggestionsforfurtherresearches.Firstly,thisresearchjusttestifiesthepositiveeffectsonscaffoldinginstructioninseniorhighschoolstudents.ThecombinationofEnglishsongsandfilmsaswellasscaffoldinginstructionshouldbestudiedontheaspectofgrammarinthefuture.Moreover,theeffectsoftheteachingmodelinmiddleschoolsanduniversitiesalsoshouldbestudiesinfutureresearch.Secondly,theresearchjustusestwoexperimentalinstruments:questionnaireandtests.Apartfromtheseinstruments,moreinstrumentsaresupposedtobeused,suchasclassroom35 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsobservationandteachingdiaries.Moreinstrumentscanmaketheresearchresultsmorereliableandvalid.Thirdly,duetothesmallsampleofsubjectsandtheshortperiodofthisresearch,furtherresearchshouldbemadewithinalongerperiodoftimeforalargersampleofparticipantssoastofindmoreproofstosupportorobjecttheimplementationoftheteachingmodel.Moresubjectsandlongerexperimenttimecanguaranteethereliabilityandprecisenessoftheresearch.Inbrief,grammarteachingonthebasisofscaffoldinginstructionissomeaningfulthatitisworthyforfurtherresearch.36 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文References[1]Anderson,J.R.,Reder,L.M.,&Simon,H.A.1996.SituatedLearningandEducation[J].EducationalResearcher,27-35.[2]Bransford,J.,Brown,A.,&Cocking,R.2000.HowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,Experience,andSchool[M].Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress.[3]Brook,N.1964.LanguageandLanguageLearning:TheoryandPractice.2nded[M].NewYork:HarcourtBrace.[4]Carr,T.&J.Duncan.1987.TheVCRRevolution:FeatureFilmsforLanguageandCulturalProficiency[M].Birckbichler.[5]Donate,R.&McCormick,D.1994.ASocioculturalPerspectiveonLanguageLearningStrategies:theRoleofMediation[J].TheModernLanguageJournal,21-23.[6]Dulay,H.C.,Burt,M.K.,&Krashen.1982.LanguageTwo[M].Oxford:OUP.[7]Eken,&Eken,D.K.1996.IdeasforUsingPopSongsintheEnglishLanguageClassroom[J].EnglishTeachingForum,18-19.[8]Ellis,R.1997.TheStudyofSecondLanguageAcquisition[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.[9]Feez,S.1998.Text-BasedSyllabusDesign[M].Sydney:NationalCentreforEnglishTeachingandResearch.[10]Gibbons,P.1993.LearningtoLearninaSecondLanguage[M].USA:Heinemann.[11]Gibbons,P.2002.ScaffoldingLanguage,ScaffoldingLearning:TeachingSecondLanguageLearnerintheMainstreamClassroom[M].USA:Heinemann.[12]Ge,X.&Land,S.M.2003.ScaffoldingStudents’Problem-solvingProcessesinanill-structuredTaskUsingQuestionPromptsandPeerInteractions[J].EducationalTechnologyResearchandDevelopment,37-38.[13]Hogan,K&Pressley,M.1997.ScaffoldingStudentLearning:InstructionApproachesandIssues[M].Cambridge,MA:BrooklineBooks.[14]Hymes,D.1972.Oncommunicativecompetence[M].InJ.B.PrideandJ.Holmes,Sociolinguistics.Harmondsworth:Penguin.[15]John-Steiner,V.&Mahn,H.2003.Socioculturalcontextsforteachingandlearning[M].NJ:Wiley[16]Krashen.1985.TheInputHypothesis:IssuesandImplications[M].LondonandNewYork:Longman.[17]Krashen,S.andT.Terrell.1983.ThenaturalApproach:LanguageAcquisitionintheClassroom[M].Oxford:Pergamon.[18]Krashen.1985.TheInputHypothesis[M].London:Longman.[19]Larsen-Freeman,D.2003.TeachingLanguage:FromGrammartoGrammaring[M].Boston,MA:Thomson/Heinle.[20]BerkL.E.&A.Winsler.1995.ScaffoldingChildren"sLearning:VygotskyandEarlyChildhoodEducation[M].NA-EYC.[21]MurPhey,T.1992.Thediscourseofpopsongs[J].TESOLQuarterly,11-12.[22]Olsen,R.,andS.Kagan.1992.Aboutcooperativelearning[M].InC.Kessler(ed.),CooperativeLanguageLearning:ATeacher’sResourceBook.NewYork:PrenticeHall.[23]Rosenshine,B.&Meister,C.1992.Theuseofscaffoldsforteachinghigher-levelcognitivestrategies[J].EducationalLeadership,33-34.[24]Stern,H.H.1983.FundamentalConceptsofLanguageTeaching[M].Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.37 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructions[25]Stoller,F.1992.Using,selecting,andproducingvideofortheclassroom[M].Alexandria:TESOL.[26]Stempleski,S.&B.Tomalin.1990.Videoinaction:Recipesforusingvideoinlanguageteaching[M].NewYork:PrenticeHallInternationalGroup.[27]Tharp,R.andGallimore,R.1988.RousingMindstoLife:Teaching,LearningandSchoolinginSocialContext[M].NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress.[28]vonGlasersfeld,E.2007AnExpositionofConstructivism:WhySomeLikeitRadical.Italy:AssociazioneOikos.http://www.oikos.org/constructivism.htm.[29]Vygotsky,L.S.1978.MindinSociety:TheDevelopmentofHigherPsychologicalProcesses[M].Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress.[30]Weinberger,E.&McCombs,B.L.2001.Theimpactofleamer-centeredpracticesontheacademicandnonacademicoutcomesofupperelementaryandmiddleschoolstudents[D].PaperpresentedattheannualconventionoftheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,Seattle,WA.[31]Wertsch,J.V.1985.Vygotskyandthesocialformationofmind[M].Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.[32]Widdowson,H.G.1999.TeachingLanguageasCommunication[M].Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguagePress.[33]Windschitl,M.1999.Thechallengesofsustainingaconstructivistclassroomculture[J].PhiDeltaICappan,27-28.[34]Wood,D.J.,Bruner,J.S.,&Ross,G.1976.Theroleoftutoringinproblemsolving[J].JournalofChildPsychologyandPsychiatry,37-39.[35]陈炳伟.2009.支架式教学模式在中学政治教学中的运用[J].教学研究.(11):32.[36]陈红梅.2009.音乐是英语教学中的一种催化剂明[M].长春：考试周刊.[37]曹文海.2007.高中英语写作教学中运用支架式教学模式的实验研究[D].兰州：西北师范大学.[38]桂诗春,宁春岩.1997.语言学方法论[M].北京:外语教学与研究出版社.[39]关艳萍.2006.浅谈音乐在英语教学中的作用[J].教育科研.(10):22.[40]何克抗.1999.建构主义——革新传统教学的理论基础[J].教育研究.(5):53-59.[41]黄文武,黄文伟,张正中,刘小湘.2006.支架式教学模式在体育教学中的应用[J].教育与管理.(1):93一94.[42]焦炜.2010.支架式教学模式在英语阅读教学中的应用[J].外语教学与研究.(6):22-26.[43]教育部.2002.全日制义务教育普通高中英语课程标准解读[M].北京:人民教育出版社.[44]李莉.2004.支架式教学对物理教学的启示[J].基础教育研究.(3):19.[45]刘玉颖.2001.初中英语语法学习策略探讨[M].绥化：民营科技.[46]李嵩岳.2005.原版英语影视作品的潜在教学功能研究[J].河南广播电视大学学报.(4):61-62.[47]龙千红.2007.英语电影课的教学目标及其实现方式[J].北京交通管理干部学院学报.(2):35-38.[48]庞维国.2003.自主学习：学与教的原理和策略[C].华东师范大学出版社.[49]钱科英.2012.支架理论在初中英语阅读教学中的应用[J].绍兴市初中英语研修网.(7):32.38 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文[50]孙圣勇.2006.论英语电影文本的读写关系处理[J].电影评介.(11):79.[51]汪国华.1997.英语歌曲在英语教学中的作用[J].淮北煤师院学报.(3):19.[52]吴雪花.2003.从二语习得看多媒体英语歌曲教学[J].南京工业技术学院学报.(l):56.[53]薛平.2009.流行音乐与英语教学刍议[J].新西部.(4):11.[54]徐小红.2006.英语电影对提高我国英语学习者跨文化交际能力的作用[J].长江大学学报(社会科学版).(4)：88-90.[55]杨童瑶杨敏.2002.近三十年国内英语语法学习研究综述[M].合肥：科教文汇.[56]张国荣.2004.“支架”理论在英语写作教学中的应用[J].外语与外语教学.(9):37-39.[57]周晓燕.2006.浅谈英语语法学习[J].高等函授学报（自然科学版).(4):41-42.[58]张玉瑜.2012.支架式教学在高职英语教学中的应用研究[D].上海：华东师范大学.39 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsAppendixAppendixⅠ英语语法学习情况调查问卷（实验前）1.我不知道为什么学英语.1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意2我认为不学习语法也能学好英语。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意3.我对英语语法学习感兴趣。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意4.除老师布置的作业和练习外，我能主动找资料学习语法知识。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意5.当老师讲解语法时，我能保证注意力集中。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意6.若上语法课注意力不集中主要是因为老师的讲解很枯燥。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意7.课堂上主要依靠老师讲解来学习语法。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意8.课堂上感到被动主要是因为老师一直在灌输，没有主动思考的过程。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意9.语法规则是老师总结归纳，而不是自己得出。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意10.我习惯了老师讲授语法知识的方式。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意11.在语法教学之后，我认为我能掌握多少比例的语法知识？1.25%2.25%~50%3.50%~75%4.75%~100%12.学习语法我主要通过死记硬背学习方法。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意13我认为语法学习付出的时间和精力与收获不成正比。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意40 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文AppendixⅡ英语语法学习情况调查问卷（实验后）1.使用新的教学方法，语法课更有趣了。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意2.我在课上的参与度和发言率更高了。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意3.这种学习气氛使我感到舒服又安全。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意4.我认为小组合作可以促进语法学习。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意5.我认为这种语法教学方法可以培养我和他人交流合作的能力。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意6.在小组中,我受到同伴的鼓励和帮助，激发了我的学习动力。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意7.我喜欢在小组讨论中提问问题和陈述个人观点。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意8.我希望老师能够继续使用这种模式。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意9.你认为这种教学模式比传统的教学模式更有效。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意10.用新方法学习，我的语法与实际相联系的意识和能力提高了。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意11.我能主动把新学语法运用到口语和写作中。1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意12.你喜欢通过观看英语电影,听音乐这一方式学习英语语法吗？1.非常喜欢2.喜欢3.一般4.不喜欢5.很不喜欢13.你认为听英文歌曲英语电影是否对语法有帮助？1很有帮助2.有一点帮助3.几乎没有帮助4.有点影响学习5.很影响学习14.你认为听英文歌曲看电影片段能缓解紧张，消除疲劳？1.非常同意2.同意3.中立4.不同意5.非常不同意41 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsAppendixⅢpre-testpaper第一部分（共10小题；每小题1.5分，满分15分）阅读下面材料，在空白处填入适当的内容（一个单词）或括号内单词的正确形式。Mywifeabandons61_________(she)tobuyingthingsontheInternet.Itseemsthatshecan’tcontrolherselfwell.Itisthefourthtimethatshe62__________(shop)onlineforhours.Ihavealreadyremindedhertothinktwice,butmywifepaidlittleattentiontomy63_________(react)andreplied,“WiththeNewYear64_______________(approach),preparationisnecessary.”Ican’tputup65______herbehavior.Inmostcases,thethings66_______(buy)onlinearen’tgoodvalueformoney.Maybeshejustenjoystheprocessofonlineshopping.Nowadays,withthedevelopmentoftechnology,onlineshopping67________(become)moreandmoreconvenient.Those68______stayathomecanbuywhatevertheywant.Inthemeanwhile,itcauses69_______numberofproblems.Oneofthemismorespendingthanbefore,becausepeopleare70__________(easy)attractedbythediscount.第二部分写作(共两节，满分35分)第一节短文改错（共10小题；每小题1分，满分10分）文中共有10处语言错误，每句中最多有两处，每处错误仅涉及一个单词的增加，删除或修改。DearMrZhang,I’mreallygladtotellyouthatIhavemadeaprogressinmyEnglishsinceIcomeintohighschool.However,inthebeginning,IfoundlearningEnglishinseniorhighmuchmoredifficultasthatinjuniorhigh.Healmostlostheart.Later,IrealizedtheimportanceofEnglish,butIgotupearlyeverymorning,readEnglisharticles,listentoradioanddidalotexercises.IalsoaskedmyteachersandclassmateforbettermethodsoflearnEnglish.Now,I’mimprovingmyEnglish,andI’mmoreandmoreinterestinginlearningit.Thankyousomuchforyourgreatlyhelpinyourclass.Wishyouallthebest.Yours,LiHua第二节翻译（满分25分）刘磊，我已经读了你的来信并且了解了你现在的处境（注意时态。我知道你最近学习压力非常大，经常学习到深夜，（so...that)但学习效果不好。所以，我给你写了这封回信，希望能帮你支支招。首先你要注意劳逸结合，比如做做运动，唱唱歌，这一些活动都会令你放松的。(定语从句），更好的投入到学习中。此外希望你有个好的心态，不要经常和别人攀42 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文比，不要因为一时的结果而沮丧，（并列句）笑到最后的才是笑的最好的（定语从句），只要你不断努力改良学习方法，你一定会成功的。（状语从句）43 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsAppendixⅣ:post-testpaper第一部分（共10小题；每小题1.5分，满分15分）第一节阅读下面材料，在空白处填入适当的内容（一个单词）或括号内单词的正确形式。Withcomputerswidely1_____(use)inmanyfields,moreandmoreteenagersnowtypeeverythingonthecomputerinsteadof2_____(write)onpaper,3______hascausedthelevelofstudents’handwritingskillstodropsharply.第二节单项选择4.Theboy______Steve,whooftenhelpsothers,______LeiFenginourschool.A.whosenameis;comparingwithB.calling;iscomparedtoC.whocalled;comparedtoD.withthename;iscomparedto5.Allthesegiftsmustbemailedimmediately________intimeforChristmas.A.inordertohavereceivedB.inordertoreceiveC.soastobereceivedD.soastobereceiving6.Afirebrokeoutinthebuildingatabout7:30onTuesdaymorning,_____inthedeathofayounggirl.A.havingresultedB.resultedC.toresultD.resulting7._______,you"llneverbeabletopersuadehim.A.HoweverhardmayyoutryB.TryhoweverhardyoumayC.HardasyoumaytryD.Tryhardasyoumay8.—When_______again?—Whenhe_______,I"llletyouknow.A.hecomes;comesB.willhecome;willcomeC.hecomes;willcomeD.willhecome;comes9.Itwasinthehousebythesea_______heusedtolive________wemetagainunexpectedly.A.where…thatB.that…whereC.which…thatD.where…where10.______itrainthedayaftertomorrow,wewouldhavetopostponethevisittotheCambridge.A.WereB.ShouldC.WouldD.Will第二部分写作(共两节，满分35分)第一节改错（共10小题；每小题1分，满分10分）每处错误仅涉及一个单词的增加，删除或修改。1.TedcamefortheweekendwearingonlysomeshortsandaT-shirt,thatisastupidthingtodoinsuchweather.2.Manychildren,theirparentsareawayworkinginbigcities,aretakengoodcareofinthevillage.3.Thesettlementishometonearly1,000people,manyofthemlefttheirvillagehomesforabetterlifeinthecity.44 辽宁师范大学硕士学位论文4.Iwillgiveyousuchinformationwhichwillhelpyou.5.Theairqualityinthecity,whichisshowninthereport,hasimprovedoverthepasttwomonths.6.Ifyouhavegoneoveryourtestpapercarefullybeforehandingitin,youwouldhavemadefewermistakes.7.IfonlyIamasyoungasyouare!8.Whenheating,liquidscanbechangedintogases.9.Nowthatsheisoutofajob,Lucyhadbeenconsideringgoingbacktoschool,butshehasn’tdecidedyet.10.Heardaboutthenews,hedecidedtogoontheorganizedtrip.第二节翻译（满分25分）目前中国吸烟者高达45%，其中多为年轻人。（定语从句）甚至是中学生。我强烈反对吸烟，一方面吸烟有害健康，甚至可能引起肺癌。另一方面，作为中学生，吸烟会造成不必要的开销。作为学生，我们还没有能力自食其力，应避免不必要的花销，减少父母的负担（状语从句）。所以，我们要从我做起，积极宣传。当周围同学吸烟时，要主动制止。（状语从句）是时候采取行动了。如果没有人吸烟，我们能呼吸到更加清新的空气，过上更高质量的生活（虚拟语气）45 AStudyofGrammarTeachinginSeniorHighSchoolontheBasisofScaffoldingInstructionsAcknowledgementsOncompletingthisthesis,Iwouldliketotakethisopportunitytoexpressmysincerethankstoalltheteacherswhohaveofferedmeallkindsofhelpincompletingthisthesis.Firstly,Iwanttoexpressgreatgratitudetomysupervisor,ProfessorLengHui,towhomIowetheknowledgeoftherationaleandmethodsofresearchinEnglishteachingandlearning.Withoutherconstantencourage,patientguidance,incisivecriticismanddetailedrevision,thisthesiswouldhavebeenimpossible.Secondly,Iamgratefultoalltheteachersandmyschoolmatesofmyuniversity.IwanttoletthemknowthatIshallneverforgettheprecioustimewespenttogether.Lastbutnotleast,mythanksgotomyfamilymemberswhohaveshownpatienceandencouragementtomywork,thoughunabletosupportmetheoretically,encouragemespiritually.46 ■．■．，－‘．－—’‘．＼叫．：．，．．‘护Ｖ：－．．＇．．‘－ｖ：Ｖｓ；．：＂叫／：；■一、＇．．：：Ｖ，？■、Ｖ－驾■，舌、ｒ？．．－ｆ巧－；■．．．＂；－＼＇，／－＇、■Ｖ－；－毒．‘Ｖ．，－．■，－一－鶴．＇＂；，■－■．＇；．．．ｒ．．．、／一■．．：■：■．：－；■、－：－．＊Ｊ、．、．？．．．－人．－－＂■，－■＂．■Ｖ－－．．Ｖ■－．，＞．■．＇、．．ｘ。：＇：：ａ：＞片Ｖ＾．？巧：－－＃．．．＇＇．．ｔ－ｋ：－Ｔｒｖ式ｒｘ：．Ｖ．ｘ＇一梟＇．ｊ‘ｖ苗」ｖ．刪、？‘驚；＆．、．＿．．请．马苗＜ｒ、．屯苗敏毒，种－一－吟累！：＂乂沒、－片或｛抚凌资．／．，．＇、軟＇’ｔ；。＇考ＡＴ．卓Ｏｒ寶‘舅｝－龄度片技ｖ、Ｖ秦＇，奇Ｃ户Ｖ．＆－－＾若：费＾解忠吝：識＾苗啼链欠．．媒