读书笔记.英语语法俱乐部 87页

1/87读书笔记.英语语法俱乐部作者：燕志伟，jerodDOTyanATgmailDOTcom时间：2012-07-07起，2012-08-22止地点：西安，小房子目录0语法的问题..........................................................................................................................91基本句型及补语..................................................................................................................101.1什么是补语？..............................................................................................................101.2哪些是系动词？...........................................................................................................111.3宾语补语的句型...........................................................................................................121.4补语的词类..................................................................................................................131.5没有补语的be动词.....................................................................................................131.6两个宾语的句型...........................................................................................................132名词短语与冠词..................................................................................................................132.1什么时候不要限定词....................................................................................................142.2专有名词与补语的位置................................................................................................142.3定冠词the用法...........................................................................................................152.4定冠词与专有名词.......................................................................................................162.5注意点.........................................................................................................................163动词的时态.........................................................................................................................173.1简单式.........................................................................................................................173.1.1过去时间：...........................................................................................................173.1.2现在时间..............................................................................................................18 2/873.1.3未来时间..............................................................................................................193.2完成式.........................................................................................................................193.2.1现在时间..............................................................................................................203.2.2过去时间..............................................................................................................203.2.3未来时间..............................................................................................................213.3小结............................................................................................................................224不定式................................................................................................................................224.1不定式与助动词的共同点.............................................................................................224.2不定式与动名词的区别................................................................................................244.2.1stop.....................................................................................................................244.2.2avoid....................................................................................................................244.2.3hate.....................................................................................................................244.2.4like......................................................................................................................244.2.5try.......................................................................................................................244.2.6remember............................................................................................................244.2.7Stop.....................................................................................................................254.3使役动词与原型动词....................................................................................................254.4感官动词与原型动词....................................................................................................254.5小结............................................................................................................................255动名词................................................................................................................................265.1动名词的特性..............................................................................................................265.1.1与普通名词的比较................................................................................................265.1.2动名词与名词从句................................................................................................265.2动名词的一些变化.......................................................................................................265.2.1复合字（主语省略）.............................................................................................26 3/875.2.2主语不可省略.......................................................................................................275.2.3动名词表被动（BeingVen）...............................................................................275.3动名词与现在分词.......................................................................................................276分词...................................................................................................................................276.1分词与形容词的比较....................................................................................................276.1.1现在分词与形容词位置.........................................................................................286.1.2过去分词与形容词................................................................................................286.1.3带有“完成”暗示而非“被动的”过去分词.........................................................286.2现在分词与过去分词的区分.........................................................................................286.2.1表示感觉的分词....................................................................................................286.2.2字根字首分析.......................................................................................................296.3现在分词与过去分词混合的形态..................................................................................296.4形容词从句减化...........................................................................................................296.4.1Ven......................................................................................................................296.4.2Ving.....................................................................................................................296.4.3BeingVen...........................................................................................................306.5副词从句减化..............................................................................................................306.5.1Ven......................................................................................................................306.5.2Ving.....................................................................................................................306.5.3HavingVen.........................................................................................................307形容词................................................................................................................................307.1名词短语中的形容词....................................................................................................307.1.1以a开头的形容词表属性的后置...........................................................................307.1.2名词转用为形容词................................................................................................317.2名词短语中形容词的顺序.............................................................................................31 4/877.3形容词在名词短语位置与补语位置的比较....................................................................317.4补语位置的形容词.......................................................................................................317.5形容词的比较级...........................................................................................................327.5.1拼法.....................................................................................................................327.5.2定冠词判断法.......................................................................................................337.5.3That和those的用法...........................................................................................337.5.4比较级的倒装比....................................................................................................338副词（掌握得不好）...........................................................................................................348.1方法、状态的副词.......................................................................................................348.1.1S+V.....................................................................................................................348.1.2S+V+C.................................................................................................................348.1.3S+V+C.................................................................................................................348.1.4S+V+O+O............................................................................................................348.1.5S+V+O+C............................................................................................................358.2强调语气的副词（Intensifiers）.................................................................................358.2.1强调范围的副词（FocusingAdverbs）................................................................358.2.2加强语气的副词（Intensifiers）.........................................................................358.2.3程度副词（AdverbsofDegree）........................................................................358.3连接句子的副词...........................................................................................................368.4一些副词.....................................................................................................................369语气（mood）....................................................................................................................369.1叙述事实语气..............................................................................................................379.2真假都可能出现的条件语气.........................................................................................379.2.1表达时间的功能不完整.........................................................................................379.2.2用完成式表达对过去的猜测..................................................................................37 5/879.3与事实相反的假设语气................................................................................................389.4祈使语气.....................................................................................................................3910介系词............................................................................................................................3910.1介系词短语..............................................................................................................3910.2空间的介系词...........................................................................................................3910.3时间的介系词...........................................................................................................4010.4易错的词..................................................................................................................4011主谓一致.........................................................................................................................4111.1主词是一个还是两个人（或）物？...........................................................................4111.2主词是哪一个...........................................................................................................4211.2.1比较连词than和as.........................................................................................4211.2.2对等连词but,not,or........................................................................................4211.3主语中有every,each,either,neither等表示“一”的字........................................4211.4主语是代词，要看先行词.........................................................................................4311.5以单位做主词...........................................................................................................4311.6主语后面有介系词时................................................................................................4311.7主词为空的字...........................................................................................................4311.8以s结尾的词...........................................................................................................4412名词从句.........................................................................................................................4512.1合句（CompoundSentence）................................................................................4512.2复句（ComplexSentence）....................................................................................4512.3典型的名词子句.......................................................................................................4512.3.1主语位置...........................................................................................................4612.3.2受词位置...........................................................................................................4612.3.3补语位置...........................................................................................................46 6/8712.3.4同位语关系.......................................................................................................4712.4名词从句的放大.......................................................................................................4712.5疑问句改装的名词从句.............................................................................................4712.5.1Whether和if......................................................................................................4812.6小结.........................................................................................................................4813副词从句.........................................................................................................................4813.1时间、地点,after,until,when,where...................................................................4913.2条件,if,aslongas,suppose....................................................................................4913.3原因、结果,as,nowthat,since,because,sothat..................................................4913.4目的inorderthat,lest,incase..............................................................................5013.5让步,although,while,nomatter...........................................................................5013.6限制,inthat............................................................................................................5013.7方法、状态..............................................................................................................5113.8小结.........................................................................................................................5114关系从句.........................................................................................................................5114.1特色.........................................................................................................................5114.1.1两个句子要有交集.............................................................................................5114.1.2把交集点改写为关系词的拼法（wh-），让它产生连接词的功能.......................5114.1.3将关系从句附于主要从句的交集词（名词）后面来修饰它（作形容词使用）....5214.2关系代名词与关系副词.............................................................................................5214.3关系代名词的省略....................................................................................................5214.4何时用that..............................................................................................................5314.5何时不用that..........................................................................................................5414.6先行词的省略...........................................................................................................5414.6.1What...................................................................................................................54 7/8714.6.2Whoever..............................................................................................................5514.6.3Whichever...........................................................................................................5514.7关系子句的位置.......................................................................................................5514.8关系副词..................................................................................................................5614.8.1When...................................................................................................................5614.8.2Where..................................................................................................................5814.8.3How/why.............................................................................................................5814.9有逗号隔开的关系子句.............................................................................................5914.10Wh-ever与副词从句................................................................................................5915对等句............................................................................................................................6016从句减化通则..................................................................................................................6416.1减化从句..................................................................................................................6416.2从属子句减化的通则................................................................................................6516.2.1为何省略主词....................................................................................................6516.2.2为何省略be动词..............................................................................................6517形容词子句的减化...........................................................................................................6717.1补语为Ven..............................................................................................................6717.2补语为Ving.............................................................................................................6717.3补语是toV..............................................................................................................6817.3.1主动与被动.......................................................................................................6817.3.2不定式有无宾语的判断.....................................................................................6817.3.3不定式后面有无介词的判断..............................................................................6917.3.4不定式的主语不清楚，如何处理？....................................................................6917.4补语为一般形容词....................................................................................................7017.5补语为名词..............................................................................................................70 8/8718名词子句的减化..............................................................................................................7018.1Ving形式....................................................................................................................7018.1.1主词位置...........................................................................................................7118.1.2宾语..................................................................................................................7118.2减化后剩下的补语是toV.........................................................................................7218.3代表疑问句的名词化减化.........................................................................................7318.4ToV与Ving的比较...................................................................................................7319副词子句简化之一...........................................................................................................7419.1减化Ving补语........................................................................................................7419.1.1连接词是否保留................................................................................................7419.1.2没有be动词时..................................................................................................7519.1.3应该省略的连接词.............................................................................................7519.1.4应该保留的连接词.............................................................................................7519.1.5Being的运用.......................................................................................................7519.1.6兼作介词的连接词：before,after,since..........................................................7519.1.7时态的问题.......................................................................................................7519.2DanglingModifier错误.............................................................................................7619.3保留主语的注意事项................................................................................................7620副词从句减化之二...........................................................................................................7620.1减化为Ven..............................................................................................................7620.1.1是否保留连接词................................................................................................7620.1.2三个特殊的连接词.............................................................................................7720.1.3如何用Havingbeen.........................................................................................7720.1.4主语不同时.......................................................................................................7720.2减化为toV..............................................................................................................77 9/8720.3单纯的be动词.........................................................................................................7820.4改为介系词片语.......................................................................................................7821减化从句的练习..............................................................................................................7922倒装句............................................................................................................................8322.1比较级的倒装...........................................................................................................8322.2关系从句的倒装.......................................................................................................8422.3假设语气的倒装.......................................................................................................8422.4引用句的倒装...........................................................................................................8422.5类似thereis/are的倒装..........................................................................................8522.6否定副词开头的倒装................................................................................................8523心得................................................................................................................................860语法的问题一些所谓“规则”，在一本本语法书间抄来抄去，写书的人不去追究背后的道理，教语法的人也从来不去质问“为什么”，规则解释不了的地方就叫“例外”。以讹传讹的结果，把合乎逻辑的语法搞得令人望而生畏。试想，每学到一个语法项目，有100条规则要背，这100条规则又牵出1000条例外，这样怎么可能学得会？好的语法观念，不应该有任何要背的东西。它可直接从大量的英语句子中归纳出来，只需要少数几个容易理解的观念，就可以充分诠释语法出现的原因。语法的发明或出现自有它的合理性，并不是都是例外。值得注意的是，英语语法以句子为主要的研究单位。这个概念是极其重要的。学语法的目的，就是要学会看懂句子，包括复杂的、难懂的句子。更进一步就是要能写出正确的、有变化的句子。至于句子的效果与说服力，则属于修辞的范围。在另一个本书中会加以探讨。 10/871基本句型及补语五种单句的基本句型：S+V（主语+动词）S+V+O（主语+动词+宾语）S+V+C（主语+动词+补语）S+V+O+O（主语+动词+宾语+宾语）S+V+O+C（主语+动词+宾语+补语）其中，后三类中有补语的概念。补语的概念在一般的语法中强调得比较少。补语其实是在句型结构中，其重要性仅次于动词的概念。它对于复杂的句子的理解与写作是十分重要的。1.1什么是补语？五种基本句型的产生是因为动词不同。而补语的产生是因为动词“是”的出现。解释为“是”的动词是空泛的、没有意义的。也只有“是”动词才需要补语来补足句子的意思。一个完整的句子，要能表示完整的意思，需要两个部分来完成：主语和动词。主语，是这个句子所叙述的对象。动词，构成叙述的主要内容。例如：JohnSmithdiedinWorldWarTwo.(不及物动词S+V)JohnSmithkilledthreeenemysoldiers.（及物动词S+V+O）上面两个例子中的动词。如果killed不加宾语，它只能算一个不好的句子。但是它主要意思存在。反之，如果句子缺了补语，就会变得完全没有意义，因为叙述的部分完全缺乏。（在所有的英语动词中，只有解释为“是”的动词是空的，完全没有意义）。一般的动词，不论及物或不及物，都要担任叙述全句最主要内容的工作。只有解释为“是”的动词，没有叙述能力，只能扮演引导叙述部分的角色。例如：JohnSmithwasasoldier.JohnSmithwascourageous.系动词把主语与补语划上了等号而已。有时补语是形容词时，中文翻译，“是”就省略了。例如： 11/87TarokoGorgeisbeautiful.(太鲁阁峡谷很美。)Thesoupistoohot.（汤太烫了。）所以，解释为“是”的动词是没有叙述能力的，只是做为一个语法虚词存在，把主语和后面构成叙述的部分连接起来。通常，它又叫“系动词”（LinkingVerb）。那么跟在这些动词后面的部分，因为替代了动词所扮演的叙述角色，补足句子使它获得完整意思，称之为“补语”（Complement）。1.2哪些是系动词？表1系动词BeLook看起来是Seem似乎是Appear显得是Sound听起来是Feel摸起来是Taste尝起来是Turn转变为Prove证实为Become成为Make做为做为汉语，“为”只不过是文言的“是”。一些例子：Thatdresslookspretty.Thedogseemsfriendly.Hisdemandsappearreasonable.Histripsoundsexciting. 12/87Ifeelsick.Thedrugtastesbitter.Thestoryprovedfalse.Hebecameateacher.Anursemakesagoodwife.这些例子中的动词都可换成be动词。而且，意思也不会有变化。1.3宾语补语的句型主语的补语是告诉读者主语是什么，中间用“是”动词串联起来。“主语+动词+宾语+补语（S+V+O+C）”的句型，则是用补语告诉读者宾语是什么，中间暗示有一个“是”的关系存在。如下例所示：Ifindthedresspretty.Themeatmadethedogfriendly.Theyconsiderhisdemandsreasonable.Hefoundthetripexciting.Thefoodmademesick.Idon’tfindthedrugbitter.Iconsiderthestoryfalse.Hiscollegetrainingmadehimateacher.Mostpeopleconsideranurseagoodwife.如果宾语可用be动词+补语，那么就是宾补。 13/871.4补语的词类补语的词类应该是名词或形容词比较合理。因为主语或宾语是名词，所以补语也是名词，经由“是”的连接来表达同等的关系。之所以还可以是形容词，那么是因为形容词可修饰名词。1.5没有补语的be动词Tobeandnottobe,thatisthequestion.这里的be不表达“是”，而表达“存在”。1.6两个宾语的句型两个宾语的句型是S+V+O+O。例如，John’sfathergavehimadog.这与S+V+O+C很相似。其实有本质不同，因为两个宾语不能用“be”或“是”连接。2名词短语与冠词名词短语使用频率极高，可做主语、宾语、介词的宾语、补语。名词短语词尾用单、复数；开头用“限定词”（Determiners）。例如，AnewbookManygoodstudentsHisbeautifulwifeThebestanswerThosesweetroses 14/87这些短语由三部分构成。第一部分（a、many，his）就是限定词。这个限定词决定第三部分（book、student、wife），亦即名词部分的范围。中间部分（new、good、beautiful）是形容词，依附在名词上的修饰语，是可有可无的元素。注意，这三个部分，每个部分都可以省略。如，Anewbook->abookThebestanswer->Oftheseanswers,thisoneisthebest.Thosesweetroses->Iwantthose.2.1什么时候不要限定词不能用“一个”或“那个”修饰的名词，不加限定词。Anewbook->newbook（wrong）从语源学（etymology）的角度来看，冠词a(n)可以视为one一字的弱化，也就是说，就是one的意思，只是语气较弱。如果后面的名词不适合以“一个”来交代，也就等同于不能用“a(n)”来限定，就可空下来。例如：Unmarriedmenareararespeciesthesedays.除了复数外，抽象名词（honesty,bribery），没有具体形状，不能以“一个”来表示。物质名词（water，food）虽是具体的东西，可是形状不固定，也不能用“一个”来表示。例如：Honestyisnotnecessarilythebestpolicy.FreshwaterisapreciousresourceinSaudiArabia.2.2专有名词与补语的位置如果人名是唯一的，就不用“一个”加以修饰。也就是说，“a(n)”是指可能有多个，所以也就有复数。加a(n)与加-s是一体的两面，我们用这个符号分别来表示单、复数。例如：TherearefiveSundaysthismonth. 15/87IhaveanappointmentonSunday.放在补语位置的专有名词最难以判断。补语和主语（或宾语）之间有同等的关系。如果主语是专有名词的话，那么它的补语也当作专有名词来使用，条件是在补语位置上的名词也必须具有“唯一”的性质。例如：Mr.Elsonwaspresidentofthehighschool.校长一词不加冠词。SomesayhewasabetterpresidentthanMr.Robert.Mr.ElsonisalsoamemberoftheCouncilofthecity.ClintonmadeGorlecampaignpartnerofthePresidentialelection.注意：这些情况说明要对句子本身的事情要清楚。要知道一个学校只有一位校长，一个总统下面只有一个副总统。2.3定冠词the用法在语源学上，the可视为that或those的弱化形式（注意不是this和these）。而that或those是指形容词，有明确的指示功能。所以定冠词the也可以用同样的角度来了解：凡是上下文中有明指或暗示时，也就是有“那个”的指示功能时，便要用定冠词the。请比较：Ineedabooktoreadonmytrip.Ihavefinishedthebookyoulentme.Modernhistoryismyfavoritesubject.ThehistoryofrecentChinaisasorryrecord.Heshouldbehome;Isawalightinhishouse.Turnofftheportallight.I’mgoingtotheofficenow.DoyoumindifIopenthewindows? 16/872.4定冠词与专有名词专有名词就是：只有一个对象存在的名词。the表示that或those。如果专有名词加了the，那么这个词就不是专有名词了。例如，ThisisnottheJohnSmithIknow.(有两个JohnSmith)ThisisaphotographyshowoftheTaibei50yearsago.(两个台北，现在的和以前的)ThePacific(Ocean)TheAtlantic(Ocean)TheIndianOceanTheMediterranean(Sea)TheDeadSeaThePhilippineIslands->thePhilippinesTheAlpMountains->theAlpsTheMississippi(River)TheTitanic(Ship)TheHilton(Hotel)TheunitedstatesofAmericaTheUnitedNations2.5注意点名词做形容词用时，不可有复数。所有格of用于没有生命的。’s用于有生命的。Nobody还表名词，无名小卒。 17/87Onething,anotherthing.例外，womendoctors3动词的时态只需了解两种状态：简单式与完成式。时间（time）和状态（aspect）分开处理。时间观念（现在、过去、未来）。主动与被动语态（voice）。以简驭繁办法：把be动词当动词，其后的分词视为形容词。动词短语长的时候，里面一定会有be动词，如果把be动词抽离出来当作动词看，那就只剩下用be动词写的简单式，以及用havebeen写的完成式两种状态。分词可视为形容词补语，不放在动词短语里面。3.1简单式简单式的动词可以清楚交代动作是发生于哪个时段。而与它搭配的时间副词通常会明确标示出一个时段。也就是说，简单式的时间是括弧（）的形状，我们可以用括弧把简单式的时间括起来。这个括弧大小不拘，可以小到一个点，也可以大到无限，可是必须标示得很明确。例如，3.1.1过去时间：例，TheU.S.establisheddiplomaticrelationswiththeP.R.C.in1979.例，ThemovableprintwasintroducedtoEnglandin1485. 18/87此句中，be动词当作动词看，它的时间副词in1485也是一个括弧，在now的左边。而分词introduced看作是“形容词化”的补语。例，Iwasvisitingclientsthewholedayyesterday.同样，分词短语为补语。而现在分词表示一种持续性，相当于中文的“正在、一直”的口气。注意，be动词都是不翻译的。还有短时间、一瞬间的，例如，IwaswatchingTVwhenIheardthedoorbell.Thewitnesswasbeingquestionedincourtwhenhehadaheartattack.3.1.2现在时间如果时间副词是now，或以now为中心的或大或小的括弧，就要用现在时间的简单式。只要在以now为中心的括弧，可以大到涵盖过去及未来，才可以用来表示不变的真理。例如，体育比赛中的时态，都是现在时间，也就是now，所播报一直是现在这一刻所发生的事情，所以就是now这一瞬间。BushistheU.S.President.布什是现任美国总统，可是几年前他不是，几年后他也可能不是。以now为中心的一段时间。Allmotherslovetheirchildren.天下的母亲爱小孩。是以now为中心的一个极大的括弧。7-EVLVENissellingbigcokesatadiscountthismonth. 19/87AccordingtotheNASAsurvey,theozonelayerisbeingdepleted.以now为中心的较大的括弧，所以动词现在简单式。Beingdepleted当成补语。3.1.3未来时间与前面类似，例如，TherewillbeamajorelectioninMarch.时间副词inMarch是一个未来时间的括弧。未来的事情还没发生，尚未确定，所以要有一个助动词will在前面，意思是“到时候会”。Don’tcallmeatsixtomorrow.I’llstillbesleepingthen.3.2完成式相对于简单式的括弧形状，完成式是用箭头来表达时间的，强调表示动作的截止时间。从功能上看，简单式是交代动作发生的时段，而完成式并不对动作发生的时段作明确的交代，时间的随机性很强，只表示“曾经”、“做过”的意思。 20/873.2.1现在时间例如，I’msureIhaveseenthisfacesomewhere.对动作发生时间不确定，强调截止时间是现在。在这一刻以前看到过都算数，以后才要去看则不算数。这就是现在时间完成式的条件。例如，Wehavebeenworkingovertimeforaweektofillyourorder.注意be是动词，因为时间副词foraweek是“到现在，算来有一个星期了”。强调是一个时间点。要用完成式“已经”来配合。例，Thehousehasbeenredecoratedtwicesincetheymovedin.时间点强调也是now。Therehavebeensomebadstormsrecently.3.2.2过去时间如果没有特别的交代的话，一般说“有……过”，就是“到现在有……过”，所以都是现在完成式。用过去完成式则要有一个过去的截止时间，也就是箭头指在一个过去时间，在那之前就“有……过”。例，Manysoldiershaddiedfrompneumoniabeforethediscoveryofpenicillin. 21/87例，IhadbeensmokingthreepacksofcigarettesadaybeforeIdecidedtoquit.分词表补语，ing表持续性，也就是每天都要抽三包烟，而且是“一直如此”。例，JapanhadnotbeendefeatedyetbythetimeGermanysurrenderedunconditionally.3.2.3未来时间未来时间的完成式，只是把箭头所指的截止时间移向未来的一个点。思想与前面的类似。在写法上，因为是未来时间，所以动词前面加一个will就可以了。例，NextApril,Iwillhaveworkedherefor20years.例，Comebackat5:00.Yourcarwillhavebeenfixedbythen.去修车厂拿车子，老板叫你五点来。他的意思不是五点才要修你的车，而是说五点以前就一定先修好了，等你来拿。真正修好的时间可以是四点，也可能是三点。强调是截止时间。中文翻译成“会已经”。 22/87例，Intwomoreminutes,shewillhavebeentalkingonthephoneforthreehours.同样ing表持续性。注意时间截止点是两分钟后的时刻。P.77，2012-07-093.3小结完成式强调的是截止时间点，简单式强调以now为中心的时间段。Be动词分词是补语，进行式表“一直”，过去分词表“被动”。P.new354不定式不定式最合理的解释是把它视为助动词的变化。弄清不定式与助动词的关系，就可以不背任何规则了。4.1不定式与助动词的共同点例，Iamgladtoknowyou.为什么要不定式？S+V+C就已经结束了。要还原其本来的句子。IamgladbecauseIcanknowyou.或是，IamgladbecauseIamabletoknowyou.长期地语言进化，可以省略Iam，because，able。此处注意，不定式会含有able的意思。不定式与助动词的共同点：接原形动词，例如，Iwillgo.和Iwanttogo. 23/87语气有“不确定性”。例如，Heisright.Hemayberight.Heseemstoberight.都要用完成式来表达相对过去时间。助动词与不定式本身都无法完整表达过去时间。例，听到外面有雨声。Itmustberainingnow.如果天上乌云密布，则说，Itmayrainanyminute.Itmightevensnow.这些助动词都没有过去的意思。但是，如何表过去呢？昨天夜里下了雨。Itmusthaverainedlastnight.试想一下，直接用动词也不合适，不得以用了过去完成式。又例如，Itseemstohaverainedlastnight.不定式也用完成式表过去。所有重要的语气助动词，都可以改为不定式。Must,havetoShould,oughttoWill/would,begoingtoCan/could,beabletoMay/might,belikelyto那么，有不定式的地方，都可以看成一个子句的省略。 24/874.2不定式与动名词的区别简单办法，还原子句子。4.2.1stopTheyplantomarrynextmonth.Theyplanthattheywillmarrynextmonth.4.2.2avoidIavoidmakingthesamemistaketwice.(Wrong)IavoidthatIwillmakethesamemistaketwice.(不太恰当！)4.2.3hateIhatetosaythis,butIthinkyou’remistaken.4.2.4likeIliketobethefirst.Idon’tliketowaittoolong.Idislikestandinginlonglines.4.2.5tryIalwaystrytobeontime.Whydon’tyoutrybeinglateforachange?4.2.6rememberPleaseremembertogivemeawake-upcallat6:00tomorrow.Iremembercallingherat6:00lastnight. 25/874.2.7StopThespeakerstoppedtalkingatthesecondbell.Thespeakerstoppedasecondtodrinksomewater.4.3使役动词与原型动词ThelittlegirlaskedhermothertocometothePTAmeeting.ThelittlegirlaskedifhemotherwouldcometothePTAmeeting.Ask是个普通的动词，没有强制性。来不来，别人说了算。而使役动词代表强权，强制。比较：Theteachermadethelittlegirlstaybehind.Theteachaskedthelittlegirltostaybehind.4.4感官动词与原型动词(see,hear,watch)明确的动作如果动作有持续性。Iheardherplayingtheviolin.如果动作是瞬时完成的。Iheardhercryoutinpain.4.5小结不定式是助动词的省略，带有不确定的语气。难道“不定”是“不确定性”的意思？Beusedto中to是介词。P.45 26/875动名词传统方法中有四种动词变形（verbals），动名词，现在分词（Ving），过去分词（Ven）和不定式（toV）。动名词是名词。而分词是只能做形容词。但是，要注意不定式可当作名词，有时要区分。5.1动名词的特性5.1.1与普通名词的比较例，Letmebuyyouadrink.Drinkingishisonlyvice.(有动作持续性，不可数，抽象，习惯性)又如，Iamnotafraidofdeath,butIamscaredofdying.（抽象与持续性）可以有复数，twoweddings，有冠词theburning，有所有格hisrunning。5.1.2动名词与名词从句IreallyenjoyedthatItaughtEnglishtoschoolchildrenatnight.IreallyenjoyedteachingEnglishtoschoolchildrenatnight.为何不用不定式？不定式有不确定的语气，而动名词有持续性的意思。5.2动名词的一些变化5.2.1复合字（主语省略）Pickingstrawberriescanbefun.Thatanybodypicksstrawberriescanbefun. 27/87Thepickingofstrawberriesrequirespatience.Strawberry-pickingisastrenuousjob.(ofstrawberries)表形容词5.2.2主语不可省略Idon’tlikethatJohncallsmygirlfrienddayafterday.Idon’tlikeJohn’scallingmygirlfrienddayafterday.5.2.3动名词表被动（BeingVen）ThatIwasinvitedhereisagreathonor.Beinginvitedhereisagreathonor.5.3动名词与现在分词Thatflyingbirdisablack-facedspoonbill.(Ving)Thebirdisflying.Thatflyingjacketlookssmartonyou.(动名词)Thejacketisflying?That’sajacketforflying.（放在介词后面来验证）。P.54,2012-07-116分词不严格地说，分词可视为形容词。6.1分词与形容词的比较形容词有两种位置： 28/87名词短语中，和补语的位置。6.1.1现在分词与形容词位置Thatblackdogdoesn’tbite.Abarkingdogdoesn’tbite.Barking有一些暗示的意义，表“正在叫，一直叫”。可视为弦外之音。许多的形容词字尾有弦外之音，-ful很，ish（一点），less（没、不），可以视-ing也是弦外之音，表一直，正在。6.1.2过去分词与形容词-ed表示“被，已经”。Cleanwaterissafetodrink.(S+V+C+?)CleanwaterissafebecauseIcandrink.Boiledwaterissafetodrink.6.1.3带有“完成”暗示而非“被动的”过去分词Icannotfindmywallet.Itisgone.Theleavesareallfallen,nowthatwinterishere.Iamdone.Itisallyours.(我已经好了。该你用了。)6.2现在分词与过去分词的区分现在分词有暗示“一直、正在”。过去分词有暗示“被动”、“完成”。6.2.1表示感觉的分词Heisdisappointedathisscores.Hisscoresaredisappointing. 29/87又如，satisfy,surprise,amaze,astonish,scare,terrify,please,tire,exhaust,这些词都不好判断。方法是，还原成主动态。Hescoresdisappointhim.这些词的被动意义不明显，所以通常也不用by。另外，有感情的人或动物用这些感觉的词多一些。6.2.2字根字首分析这个要求背字根，如sist=stand，be是不及物的。Pos=place，是及物的。Waterconsistsofhydrogenandoxygen.Wateriscomposedofhydrogenandoxygen.6.3现在分词与过去分词混合的形态分词都是形容词。Ihavenocommenttomakewhilethecaseisbeinginvestigatedbypolice.(为何是tomake？不是making，made，tobemade。S+V+O+C。C的主语是I，要用主动。Making或tomake。那么一定是省略了什么？可以理解为making由bemaking来，tomake由beableto来。)6.4形容词从句减化6.4.1VenToysmadeinTaiwanaremuchbetternow.ToyswhicharemadeinTaiwanaremuchbetternow.6.4.2VingChildren(whoare)livinginorphanagesmakealotoffriends. 30/876.4.3BeingVenThevasebeingauctionednowisaMingchina.6.5副词从句减化6.5.1Ven(Afterhewas)Woundedinwar,thesoldierwassenthome.6.5.2VingThepigeon,afteritflew200miles,wascaughtcupinanet.Thepigeon,afterflying200miles,wascaughtcupinanet.6.5.3HavingVenHavingfinishedtheday’swork,thesecretarywenthome.P.62,2012-07-117形容词形容词是修饰名词的。副词是用来修饰名词以外的词类，包括动词、形容词、副词。广义的形容词包括形容词从句、减化的形容词从句（分词短语、同位语、不定式）、介系词片语、复合字或单字。本章是以单字为主。单字形容词，通常在句子中只有两种位置：名词短语及补语的位置。7.1名词短语中的形容词7.1.1以a开头的形容词表属性的后置不适合放在名词短语的中间位置，如 31/87Johnandhisbrotheralikeareunreliable.Moneyalonecannotsolveourproblem.7.1.2名词转用为形容词AgovernmentstoreMypencilsharpenerAcigaretteboxMovietheaters7.2名词短语中形容词的顺序Threebigredapples在attributiveadjectives之间，表达名词性的形容词靠近名词，不可变的、客观的靠近名词；反之，可变的、临时的、主观的远离名词。ThemurdererleftbehindabloodyoldblackItalianleatherglove.He’swearingahandsomeoldbrownU.S.AirForceleatherflyingjacket.7.3形容词在名词短语位置与补语位置的比较名词短语中形容词,属性形容词（attributiveadjectives）补语形容词：predicativeadjectives，离名词最远。Johnissicktoday,andcouldn’tcometowork.(predicative)Johnissickman.(attributive)7.4补语位置的形容词Thislakeisdeep.Shemakeseveryonehappy. 32/87Chinesecultureis5000yearsold.Iheardherplayingtheviolin.Thefishisstillalive.Theballoonstaysafloat.Theyfoundtheprofessoralone.Coffeekeepshimawake.7.5形容词的比较级Unit3isshorterthanUnit4.Unit3islessdifficultthanUnit4.Unit3asboringasUnit4.7.5.1拼法单音节，Tall,taller,tallest三个音节，moreexpensive,mostexpensive两个音节：如果字尾是典型的形容词字尾，有明显的标示词类的功能，应保留尾不变，分成两个字处理。Crowded,morecrowded,mostcrowded;Loving,moreloving,mostloving;Helpful,morehelpful,mosthelpfulUseless,moreuseless,mostuselessFamous,morefamous,mostfamousActive,moreactive,mostactive 33/87其它的则无限制：Often,oftener,oftenest,moreoften,mostoftenShallow,shallower,shallowest,shallower,shallowest以-y结尾，长母音变成短母音。Happy,happier,happiestLucky,luckier,luckiest7.5.2定冠词判断法其实定冠词跟着名词的。YangmingshanismostcrowdedinMarch.YanmingshanisthemostcrowdedofTaipei’sscenicsopts.Johnistheshorterofthetwins.7.5.3That和those的用法Mycarisbiggerthanyours(yourcar).CarsmadeinTaiwanarebetterthanthosemadeinKorea.Those就等于thosecars。7.5.4比较级的倒装比AchimphasasmuchIQasachildoffiveorsixdoes.为了表达清楚，改为倒装AchimphasasmuchIQasdoesachildoffiveorsix. 34/878副词（掌握得不好）副词用来修饰名词以外的词（动词、形容词、与副词）。有些也可修饰名词。例如，Vegetables,especiallyspinach(波菜),aregoodforyou.副词的使用另一个注意的问题是它在句子中的位置。8.1方法、状态的副词这一类副词是修饰动词的。典型的拼法是形容词加上-ly字尾。原则上它的位置应该尽量与动词靠近后面。由于副词是修饰词，属于不太重要的元素。如果其它补语、受词主要元素出现，会使得副词后移的太远。所以要前置。8.1.1S+VThechildgiggledhappilyunderthecaressofitsmother.8.1.2S+V+CHekeptquietresolutely.可以把它放在前面，Heresolutelykeptquiet.8.1.3S+V+CHekissedthegirltenderly.Hepassionatelykissedthegirllivingnextdoor.8.1.4S+V+O+OHeshowedusthedocumentreluctantly.Iwillinglyofferyoumyhelp. 35/878.1.5S+V+O+CTheyelectedhimchairmanunanimously.Ihappilypronounceyoumanandwife.8.2强调语气的副词（Intensifiers）8.2.1强调范围的副词（FocusingAdverbs）Only,merely,also,especially,particularly,even,须紧临动词。Iheardabouttheaccidentyesterday.(OnlyI)heardabouttheaccidentyesterday.I(onlyheard)abouttheaccidentyesterday.Iheardabout(onlytheaccident)yesterday.Iheardabouttheaccident(onlyyesterday).8.2.2加强语气的副词（Intensifiers）Heisverymuchhisfather’sson.You’reutterlyinsane.Ibadlyneedadrink.8.2.3程度副词（AdverbsofDegree）程度副词的意义比语气副词重要，去掉会改变句子的意思。Theprojectisalmostfinished.Theprojectisfinished.Icanhardlyhearyou.Thepromotionwasmoderatelysuccessful. 36/878.3连接句子的副词连接副词与分离副词。连接副词后面紧跟标点。ClarkGable,however,islousy.Therefore,thefilmislessthanperfect.Itisstillagoodmovie;besides,goodromancesarerarethesedays.分离副词（Disjuncts）用来修饰句子，例如，Scientifically,theexperimentwasasuccess.Scientificallyspeaking,theexperimentwasasuccess.Ifwearespeakingscientifically,theexperimentwasasuccess.You’renotansweringmyquestionshonestly.Honestly,whatareyougoingtodoaboutit.8.4一些副词Clean作副词表“完完全全地”，做形容词表“干净”。Deadtired累得要死，表强调的副词。Increasingly,没有increasely这个词。Standfirm.P.812012-07-149语气（mood）有四种：叙述事实语气（Indicative）：表示所说的是真的。 37/87条件语气（Conditional）：表示真假还不能确定。假设语气（Subjunctive）：说反话，所说的与事实相反。祈使语气（Imperative）：表示希望能成真，但尚未实现。9.1叙述事实语气一般的英语句子都是叙述事实的。未来时要说明一下。IwillgototheU.S.nextyeartostudyforanMBAdegree.will表示不能完全确定。Themoviestartsin5minutes.因为是安排好的，可以视为事实。I’llbereadywhenhecomes.两件事都是未来的，要确定其中一件，用现在式。9.2真假都可能出现的条件语气如果加了语气助词，（must,should,will/would,can/could,may/might），都会产生不确定的语气。注意两点：9.2.1表达时间的功能不完整Must/should,will/would,can/could,may/might，并不表示时间，而表语气。后者更加不确定。ThedoctorthinksitcanbeAIDS.Itcouldbeanything–AIDSoracommoncold.9.2.2用完成式表达对过去的猜测与不定式类似，用完成式来表达到过去的猜测。 38/87Itmayrainanyminutenow.Itmayhaverainedalittlelastnight.9.3与事实相反的假设语气所说的与事实相反。现在时间：IfIwereyou,Iwouldnotdoit.过去时间：IfIhadknownearlier,Imighthavedonesomething.未来时间：Ifanasteroidshouldhittheearth,mancoulddieout.IfIweretotakethebribe,Icouldneverlookatotherpeopleintheeyeagain.Wereto是begoingto的过去形态，表未来不会去做。而should的语气却有所松动。因为是假设的，所以假设语气的句子都用过去式来表不是事实。若是现在时间，就退后为过去式，过去时态，退为过去完成式，而未来时间，则是两个子句用过去拼法的助动词来表示。还有就是混合时间的变化，如，IfIhadstudiedharderinschool,Icouldqualifyforthejobnow.混合真假的变化，如Icouldhavecontributedtothefunddrivethen,onlythatIdidnothaveanymoneywithme.前一句是假设语气，后一句是事实。句型的变化，如It’stimeyoukidswereinbed. 39/87IfonlyIhadmoretime.IwishIhadmoretime.9.4祈使语气其实，comein=youmaycomein.Thecourtdemandsthatthewitnessleave(原型)thecourtroom.经由第三方转述，must被省略。(Youmust)leavethecourtroom.如，Itisnecessarythat…Iinsistthat…10介系词一个终极办法，快速、大量、持续阅读。10.1介系词短语Cherriesare(inseason)now.Eggsaresold(bythedozen).Theboxisfull(ofchocolates).He’llreturntomorrow(attheleast).10.2空间的介系词点、线、面、体。点，at 40/87Let’smeetattherailwaystation.线，on，alongThenwegoovertheprojectonourwaytoKaohsiung.面，onSeveralboatscanbeseenonthelake.体，inIt’scoolintherailwaystationbecausetheyhaveairconditioningthere.10.3时间的介系词At表“点”，in表“长时间”，on表特定的日期。10.4易错的词HeisonhiswaytoTaichung.Stepaside!You’reinmyway.Madeof,madefrom,是看见和看不见的关系。Between有标示位置的功能，among则没有。FromMaytoSeptember四个月，FromMaythroughSeptember五个月。Above/below表相对高度，over/under则有标示定点的功能。Hasarighttosth.Bepaidbytheweek.Isbecomingtoyou.P.99 41/8711主谓一致为什么会犯错？一、中文不是拼音文字，没有这种字尾变化。所以要靠多读多写来养成习惯。二、一致性的判断并不那么单纯，要靠扎实的语法训练。11.1主词是一个还是两个人（或）物？通过限定词判断YourbrotherJohnhascometoseeyou.YourbrotherandJohnhavecometoseeyou.Thesenatoranddelegatewantstomakeanannouncement.Thesenatorandthedelegatewanttomakeanannouncement.Everymanandeverywomanhastodosomethingforthecountry.AllworkandnoplaymakesJackadullboy.Acupandsaucerisplacedonthetable.Acupandadishareplacedonthetable.Abrownandwhitedogisatyourdoorsteps.Abrownandawhitedogarefightingoverabone.没有限定词Breadandbutterisnotverytastybutveryfilling.Breadandbutterhavebothriseninprice.Oilandwaterdonotmix. 42/8711.2主词是哪一个因为减化了句子，所以难以判断。11.2.1比较连词than和asYouwanttoborrowmoney?ButI,aswellasyou,ambroke.Iambrokeaswellasyouare.I,nolessthanyou,amresponsible.Iamnolessresponsiblethanyouare.11.2.2对等连词but,not,orEveryonebutafewcompleteidiotsisabletoseethat.But,not将其它的人排除掉了。Theeggs,notthehen,werestolen.NotonlyyoubutalsoIwasatfault.Or是二选一，所以跟靠近动词的。Eithermyfatheraloneorbothmyparentsarecoming.Neitherhenorhisfriendswerethereatthattime.Doesheorhisfriendswanttogo.11.3主语中有every,each,either,neither等表示“一”的字Everybodyistoreportheretomorrow.Everystudenthasseveralchapterstoreporton.Eachhastomakeafive-minutespeech.Youhavetomakeafive-minutespeecheach. 43/87Eachofyouisresponsibleforhalfofthejob.11.4主语是代词，要看先行词Idon’ttrustpeoplewhotalktoomuch.Hehasthreeoptions,whichlookequallyattractive.Hehasthreeoptions,whichisagoodthing.ItwastheJohnsonboyswhowereherelastnight.11.5以单位做主词度量衡、时间、钱以复数出现，但不一定是复数。Hemakeseightythousanddollarsayear,whichisalotofmoney.Tensecondsisquitearecordforthe100-meterdash.11.6主语后面有介系词时一般情形，不用管它。Mrs.Lindsey,togetherwithhersons,isonaEuropeantour.Theuseofcomputersinbusinessisnowalmostinevitable.Thereisalistofthingstobuyinthehandbag.11.7主词为空的字表“全部，部分”，需要看后面的介词。AlloftheseareLishanpears.Allofthemoneyhasbeenspent.Allbutoneofthepearsareripe. 44/87Alotofthepearsaredamaged.Alotoftimehasbeenwasted.Halfofthepearsstilllookgood.Halfofthispearisrotten.Someofthecostisintransportation.Noneofthepearsarereallygoodateat.(NONE=NOTONE)Thenumberofpeopleinthedemonstrationisfivethousand.Anumberofpeoplehavebroughteggstothrow.Apairofpantsishangingonthewall.集合名词：staff,faculty,family,police,committee,crew,表一个集体时用单数，表集体中的成员时用复数。Thecommitteeis/arestudyingtheproposal.Thecommitteeisfiveyearsold.ThecommitteearemostlyRepublicanpoliticians.11.8以s结尾的词Mathematicsismyforte.Mumpsprimarilyattackschildren.Statisticswasborninthegamblinghouse.Thestatisticsarenotallaccurate.P.110,2012-07-15 45/8712名词从句12.1合句（CompoundSentence）如果两个句子没有主从关系，中间以and、but、or等连接词连起来，两句之间维持平行、对称关系，没有主、从之分。Girlslikedolls,butboyslikerobots.12.2复句（ComplexSentence）两个句子，有主从之分。将一个句子改造成名词、形容词或副词类、放在另一句子中使用，称为从属句，另一句则称为主要从句。合并而成的句子有主从之分。Iknowsomething.Iamright.IknowthatIamright.Myfatherisaman.Healwayskeepshisword.Myfatherisamanwhoalwayskeepshisword.Heworkshard.He’sinneedofmoney.Heworkshardbecausehe’sinneedofmoney.12.3典型的名词子句本来是一个完成而独立的单句。 46/87前面加上连接词that。这个连接词没有意义，只有文法功能，表示后面跟着一个名词子句。名词子句须放在主要子句的名词位置（主语，受词，补语，同位格），当名词使用。12.3.1主语位置Somethingisstrange.Hedidnotshowupontime.Thathedidnotshowupontimeisstrange.Itisstrangethathedidnotshowupontime.P11312.3.2受词位置Thedefendantsaidsomething.Hedidnotdoit.Thedefendantsaidhedidnotdoit.名词从句的连接词that因为没有意义，只有标示子句的文法功能，所以有时能省略。如果名词子句放在及物动词后面的受词位置，读者可以清楚看到这是个名词子句，就可以省略连接词that。Thedefendantsaidthathedidn’tdoit.Thathedidn’tshowupisstrange.（不能省略）Ifindsomethingstrange.Hedidn’tshowupontime.Ifinditstrangethathedidn’tshowupontime.12.3.3补语位置Thecarisruined.Theimportantthingisthatwe’reallright.名词类的主词补语与主主词之间是全等关系，也就是：Theimportantthing=we’reallright 47/8712.3.4同位语关系同位语其实是形容词从句减化后所留下的补语。Thestorythatheoncekilledamanmightjustbetrue.IamafraidthatIcan’thelpyou.Iamafraidofthatthing.Ican’thelpyou.Thatthing没有意义，thatthing与thatIcan’thelpyou重复，ofthatthing是可有可无的介系词片语。You’dbettertakecarethatnothinggoeswrong.S+V+O是完整的。同样可视为，You’dbettertakecareofthatthing.Nothinggoeswrong.12.4名词从句的放大名词从句的内容，有时比主要子句重要，这时可选择把名词子句当成主要子句处理，反而把主句缩小，放入括弧的逗号当中，如：Thisisyourlastoffer,Isuppose?S+V+C,S+VTheearthquakewasa6.9,saidDr.Chang,DirectoroftheYangmingshanGeologicalObservatory.12.5疑问句改装的名词从句典型的名词从句是外加连接词that，表示“那件事情”（thatthing）。另外，疑问词（who,what,when）引导的疑问问，也可改装为名词从句，代表一个问题（thequestion）。Iknowthequestion.Whoareyou?Iknowwhoyouare. 48/87Thequestionisanybody’sguess.Whenwillthebombgooff?Whenthebombwillgooffisanybody’sguess.12.5.1Whether和ifWhether并不能独立当做疑问词来引导一个带问号的疑问句，可是它可以引导代表一个问题的名词子句。请看下例：Ican’ttellwhich.Eitherhe’stellingthetruthorhe’snot.Ican’ttellwhetherhe’stellingthetruthornot.Which和either共同构成了whether。Whether和if通常是可互换的。句首时，由于担心引起误会，所以，用whether。Eitherthetumorismalignantoritisnot.Thetreatmentwillbedecidedby(thequestion)which.Thetreatmentwillbedecidedby(whetherthetumorismalignantornot).12.6小结连接词that，代表“那件事”。疑問词when,what,who，代表“那个问题”。补语很重要。P.12113副词从句副词从句是最简单的一个，也是最容易省略的一个。比较对等子句： 49/87Becauseheneedsthemoney,heworkshard.Heneedsthemoney,andheworkshard.比较名词从句：Thewitnesssaidthathesawthewholething.Thewitnesssaidthis,thoughhedidn’treallyseeit.副词从句与连接词紧密相关。13.1时间、地点,after,until,when,whereHebecamemorefrugalafterhegotmarried.I’llbewaitingforyouuntilyou’remarried.ItwasalloverwhenIgotthere.Asmalltowngrewwherethreeroadsmet.13.2条件,if,aslongas,supposeIfhecalls,I’llsayyou’resleeping.Hewon’thaveithisway,aslongasI’mhere.Supposeyouwereill,wherewouldyougo?13.3原因、结果,as,nowthat,since,because,sothatAsthereisnotmuchtimeleft,wemightaswellcallitaday.Thereisnothingtoworryabout,nowthatFatherisback.Helookedsosincerethatnoonedoubtedhisstory.Themotherlockedthedoorfromtheoutside,sothatthekidscouldn’tgetoutwhentheysawfire. 50/8713.4目的inorderthat,lest,incaseThemotherlockedawaythedrugssothatthekidswouldn’tswallowanybymistake.I’vetypedoutthemainpointsinboldface,inorderthatyouwon’tmissthem.I‘veunderlinedthekeypoints,lestyoumissthem.You’dbetterbringmoremoney,incaseyoushouldneedit.13.5让步,although,while,nomatterNowthat（既然）Althoughyoumayobject,Imustgiveitatry.Whilethediseaseisnotfatal,itcanbeverydangerous.Nomatter(不论)Whether(=nomatter)youagreeornot,Iwanttogiveitatry.Whoevercalls,Iwon’tanswer.Whicheverwayyougo,Iwillfollow.Howevercolditis,heisalwayswearingashirtonly.Whereverheis,Iwillgethim.Wheneveryoulike,youcancallme.13.6限制,inthatAsfarasmoneyisconcerned,youneedn’tworry.（钱的方面，你不用担心。）Picassowasarevolutionaryinthathebrokealltraditions.Inthat=inthesensethat.（从某种意义上说） 51/8713.7方法、状态HeplayedthepianoasHorowitzwouldhave.Hewritesasifheislefthanded.(他是个左撇子)。Hewritesasifhewerelefthanded.(他是冒充左撇子)。13.8小结副词从句的句子是一个完整的句子。连接词本身有各种的含义。Despite是个介词。P.13014关系从句从句有三种，名词从句、副词从句、形容词从句。形容词从句又称关系从句、定语从句。14.1特色14.1.1两个句子要有交集两个句子要有一个重复的元素，由此才能建立“关系”，才可以用关系子句的方式来合成复句。例如，ForboyfriendIamlookingforaman.Heistall,rich,andwell-educated.14.1.2把交集点改写为关系词的拼法（wh-），让它产生连接词的功能Whoistall,rich,andwell-educated.Who同时作为这个子句的主语、但是它同时也有连接词的功能。 52/8714.1.3将关系从句附于主要从句的交集词（名词）后面来修饰它（作形容词使用）ForboyfriendIamlookingforamanwhoistall,rich,andwell-educated.关系子句的连接词是从句中内含相同词的改写（原句中本来就有），而名词子句与副词子句的连接词都是外加的。IknowthatIamright.IknowthisbecauseIhaveproof.Idon’ttrustpeoplewhotalktoomuch.关系从句一定要有先行词。14.2关系代名词与关系副词关系子句中与主要子句的交集点，可也是代名词，也可能是副词。那代词that呢？是定语从句？代名词关系代名词He(she,they)WhoIt(they)WhichHis(her,their,its)WhoseHim(her,them)Whom副词关系副词ThenWhenThereWhereSoHowForareasonWhy14.3关系代名词的省略关系代名词有两个功能：一是代名词，二是连接词。如果能够省略，是因为，连接的功能十分明显，不会影响句子的清楚性。 53/87Themanismyuncle.Yousawhimjustnow.Yousawwhomjustnow.->whomyousawjustnow.Theman[whomyousawjustnow]ismyuncle.此句省略，不会造成理解困难。反之，如果关系代名词是主语，就不太合适。Themanismyuncle.Hewasherejustnow.Whowastherejustnow.Theman[whowastherejustnow]ismyuncle.所以，关系代名词当宾语时，因为要往前移，即使省略它，后面还是有S+V的构造。可以和主要子句区分清楚，因而可以省略。Heisnottheman.Heusedtobetheman.Theman是补语，有重复。Whoheusedtobe.Who是补语，不是宾语，所以不能用whom。为什么？Heisnottheman[heusedtobe].14.4何时用that关系代名词who和which有时可用that来取代。这中间选择有差别，需要说明一下。That是借自指示代名词，具有指示的功能。所以，关系子句如果有指示的作用时才适合借用that作关系词。Manisananimalthatiscapableofreason. 54/87主句中的先行词animal本来可以代表任何一种动物。后面加上一个条件，来明确哪种动物，具有指示功能，这时要用that。通常所强调语气的重心中子句时，用that。一般各种下定义的句子中，先行词是一个泛指的名词，为了指示明确，多半都是用that。That的指示功能是指，对特定的、是定冠词the的强调语气。Meteorologyisasciencethatdealswiththebehavioroftheatmosphere.Moneyis[theonlything]thatinterestshim.He’sthebestmanthatIcanrecommend.SpacemanArmstrongwasthefirstmanthatsetfootonthemoon.14.5何时不用that从叙述的语意上看，只是补充说明或为什么的性质，应该用逗点和先行词隔开。如，Forboyfriend,I‘mconsideringyourbrotherJohn,whoistall,richandwell-educated.这样句子也是正确的。Ilike[books],whateverthesubject,thathaveillustrations.P.13514.6先行词的省略英语最难的地方是省略。关系代名词与先行词重复，有时可以省略关系词。同样，有时可以省略先行词。如要省略先行词，首先这个先行词是空的、没有内容的字。如thing,people，等空泛的字。其次，关系从句与先行词之间不能有逗号。注意，由于先行词是名词，属于重要的元素，不是可有可无的修饰语，所以一旦省略先行词，在关系词的部分要有所示，表示方式如下：14.6.1WhatIhavethething.Youneedit.Ihave[thething][that(orwhich)]youneed. 55/87可以有两种变化，首先，关系代名词（that或which）在关系从句中是need的受词，可以省略。Ihavethethingyouneed.先行词thething是空的字，也可以选择省略它。可是句子中的thething省略后，主句Ihave缺了受词，关系从句也失去了它修饰的名词，所以要修改为：Ihavewhatyouneed.把关系词由that改成为what，表示前面有一个省略的先行词。在句型分析时也可以说whatyouneed是名词子句。14.6.2Whoever如果把关系词who变成whoever，表示不管先行词是谁，那么就可以省略先行词。I‘llshootanyperson.Hemoves.I’llshootanypersonthatmoves.I’llshootwhoevermoves.14.6.3Whichever表任意选哪一个的意思，可以用whichever来代表先行词的省略。Youcantakeanycar.Youlikeit.Youcantakeanycarthatyoulike.Youcantakewhichevercaryoulike.14.7关系子句的位置放在哪个位置最清楚->以此作为判断的准则。 56/87Therearetwoapplesinthebasket.Thebasketislyingonthetable.Therearetwoapplesinthebasketwhichislyingonthetable.又如，Youcanfindtwoapplesinthebasket.Iboughttheapples.YoucanfindtwoappleswhichIboughtinthebasket.(不合适，将basket隔开)。YoucanfindtwoapplesinthebasketwhichIbought.(不合适，会造成误解)。InthebasketyoucanfindtwoappleswhichIbought.（比较合适）又如，Aplaguebrokeout.Itlasted20years.Aplaguewhichlasted20yearbrokeout.（不合适）Aplaguebrokeoutwhichlasted20years.14.8关系副词如果关系子句中是以副词和主要从句中的先行词重复，就会改写为关系副词。关系副词因为是副词，所以比较自由。14.8.1WhenTheraincameatatatime.Thefamersneededitmostthen.Theraincame(atatime)whenthefarmersneededitmost. 57/87如果认定when的先行词是atime（名词），那么关系子句形容这个名词。当然，你也可以认为,atime是个名词。在省略之前，关系子句全部都是形容词子句，所有的形容词子句都是关系子句，两者可以划等号。由于atatime和when都是空洞、无内容的字，（不像in1964，lastJanuary之类有明确内容的时间）；atatime和when重复；atatime和when都属于可有可无的词。基于这三点观察，atatime和when应选择一省略来避免重复。Theraincamewhenthefarmersneededitmost.Theraincameatatimethefarmersneededitmost.注意，第二个句子一般解释为副词从句，其实是省略了when。Ineedsometime.Icanbewithmydaughterthen.Ineedsometime(when)Icanbewithmydaughter.IneedsometimeIcanbewithmydaughter.IneedwhenIcanbewithmydaughter.(误)Iknowthetime.Hewillarrivethen.Iknowthetime(when)hewillarrive.Iknowthetimehewillarrive.Iknowwhenhewillarrive.（我知道他什么时候会到。）名词类先行词是不能省略的。至于例5，并不是省略名词的结果，甚至它根本不是有关系从句，而是名词从句。名词从句有两种，一是直述句外加连接词that所构成，表示thatthing（那件事）。例如，Hesaidthathewouldcall. 58/87二是由疑问词引导的疑问句改造而成，表示aquestion（一个问题）Heaskedhowmuchitwas.Eitherthestockwillgouporitwillnot.Nooneknowswhetherthestockwillgoup(ornot).Iknowthetimehewillarrive.又如，Iknowthequestion.Whenwillhearrive?Iknowwhenhewillarrive.14.8.2Where关系副词where就是地方副词there的改写，它的变化与when大同小异。Thecarstoppedataplace.Threeroadsmetthere.Thecarstopped(ataplace)wherethreeroadsmet.TheJohnsonshaveaplace.(where)theycangetawayfromotherpeople.Pleasetellmewhereyouwerelastnight.14.8.3How/why关系副词另外有两个：由so改写的how与由forareason改成的why。它们的变化也没什么特殊之处，只要注意关系从句与名词从句差别。例如，Canyoushowmetheway?Youpulledoffthattrickinthatway(=so).Canyoushowmethewayyou(how)pulledoffthattrick? 59/87How可以省略，但是theway不可省略。Canyoushowmehowyoupulledoffthattrick?此处how是疑问词，而不是关系词。I’veforgottenthereason.Icalledforareason.I’veforgottenthereason(why)Icalled.同样的，副词类的why省略为佳，名词类的thereason则不宜省略。所以：IhaveforgottenwhyIcalled.P.14314.9有逗号隔开的关系子句关系副词引导的关系从句，如果要用逗号与主要从句隔开，原因与关系代名词时的情形完全相同：将逗号视为一组括弧，括弧中的关系子句为补充说明的功能，失去了指示的功能。所以，关系副词不能用指示代名词that来替代，同时也不能省略。Shakespearewasbornin1564.QueenElizabethIwasonthethronethen.Shakespearewasbornin1564,whenQueenElizabethIwasonthethrone.ThebestmuseuminTaiwanisthePalaceMuseum.Youcanseeournationaltreasuresthere.ThebestmuseuminTaiwanisthePalaceMuseum,whereyoucanseeournationaltreasures.14.10Wh-ever与副词从句Wh-ever解释为nomatterwh-，表示让步、条件的语气，它的功能相当于副词从句的连接词，引导的就是副词从句。 60/87Whenever(=Nomatterwhen)hegetsupset,heturnsontheradio.Nomatterwhere,nomatterhow,等关系副词变来的连接词，后面引导的也是副词从句。可是由关系代名词变出来的whoever、Whatever、whichever的变化就比较复杂，请看下例：Whoever(=Nomatterwho)stolethemoney,itcan’tbeJohn.（副词从句）I’llfirewhoever(=anyonethat)stolethemoney.（名词从句）又如，Whatever(=Nomatterwhat)hemaysay,Iwon’tchangemymind.Whatever(=Anythingthat)hemaysaywon’tbetrue.Whichever(=Nomatterwhich)wayyougo,I’llfollow.Whicheverway(=Anywaythat)yougoisfinewithme.P.145，2012-07-21例如，Allthatglittersisnotgold.15对等句对等句的概念不难，但是会牵涉到省略时，写起来容易出错。这是写作必须克服的一关。对等连接词（and，or，but）用来连接句子中两个对等的部分（单字或片语），也可以连接两个句子。所谓对等，指的是结构与内容两方面都要对称，而且对得愈工整愈好。这个要求，容易理解，但是在写作时卻常被忽略而产生错误。尤其是在有主、从关系的复句中，或者是减化从句中，若再出现对等连接词，稍有不慎就会出错。以“相关字组”（correlatives）出现的对等连接词（如not…but，notonly…butalso，both…and，either…or等等）也很容易造成错误。 61/87对等连接词所连接的对等句子为了避免重复而进行省略，这又是一个容易出错的地方。所以，对等连接词本身固然很单纯，但它在句中的运用却是变化万千。例子：TheYangtzeRiver,themostvitalsourceofirrigationwateracrossthewidthofChinaandimportantasatransportationconduitaswell,hasnurturedtheChinesecivilizationformillennia.此句的基本句型是：TheYangtzeRiverhasnurturedtheChinesecivilization.逗号相当于同位语，也就是形容词子句的减化，省略whichis的结果。这个句子在对等连接词and连接的两个部分在结构上并不对称：左边是名词短语，右边important却是形容词，词类不同，不适合对等连接词and连接。可以改为：TheYangtzeRiver,themostvitalsourceofirrigationwateracrossthewidthofChinaandanimportanttransportationconduit,hasnurturedtheChinesecivilizationformillennia.例，Scientistsbelievethathibernationistriggeredbydecreasingenvironmentaltemperatures,foodshortage,shorterperiodsofdaylight,andbyhormonalactivity.Scientistsbelievethathibernationistriggeredbydecreasingenvironmentaltemperatures,foodshortage,shorterperiodsofdaylight,andhormonalactivity.例，Smokingbypregnantwomenmayslowthegrowthandgenerallyharmthefetus.（wrong）Smokingbypregnantwomenmayslowthegrowthofthefetus,anditmaygenerallyharmthefetus.Smokingbypregnantwomenmayslowthegrowthofandgenerallyharmthefetus. 62/87这两外对等从句的主语是“smokingbypregnantwomen”相同，受词“thefetus”也相同。特等从句省略的原则就是，相对应的位置如果是重复的元素就可以省略。这是因为特等从句有相当严格的对称结构，即使省略重复的元素依然能表达清楚。不过在上面这个句子中，两个受词扮演的角色不同：在前面的对等以fetus为介词of的受词；在后面的对等的句子则以fetus为动词的直接受词。所以固然可以省略前而的农词fetus，但是介词of却不能省略。例，Rapidadvancesincomputertechnologyhaveenhancedthespeedofcalculation,thequalityofgraphics,thefunwithcomputergames,andhaveloweredprices.(wrong).前面三项是名词短语，最后一项是动词短语。结构上是不对称的。从内容上说，前三项是所增加的三样东西。而第四项不是。可以改为：Rapidadvancesincomputertechnologyhaveenhancedthespeedofcalculation,thequalityofgraphicsandthefunwithcomputergameswhileloweringprices.例，PopulationdensityisverylowinCanada,thelargestcountryintheWesternHemisphereanditisthesecondlargestinthewholeworld.PopulationdensityisverylowinCanada,thelargestcountryintheWestHemisphereandthesecondlargestinthewholeworld.例，Oncethesafetyconcernsoverthenewproductionprocedurewereremovedandwithitssuperioritytotheoldonebeingproved,therewasnothingtostopthefactoryfromswitchingover.Thesafetyconcernsoverthenewproductionprocedurewereremovedanditssuperioritytotheoldonewasproved.Thesafetyconcernsoverthenewproductionprocedurewereremovedanditssuperioritytotheoldoneproved. 63/87Oncethesafetyconcernsoverthenewproductionprocedurewereremovedanditssuperioritytotheoldoneproved,therewasnothingtostopthefactoryfromswitchingover.（正）例，Workerbeesinahoneybeehiveassumevarioustasks,suchasguardingtheentrance,servingassentinelandtosoundawarningattheslightestthreat,andexploringoutsidethenestforareasrichinflowersand,consequently,nectar.（误）Workerbeesinahoneybeehiveassumevarioustasks,suchasguardingtheentrance,servingassentinelandsoundingawarningattheslightestthreat,andexploringoutsidethenestforareasrichinflowersand,consequently,nectar.（正）此句是A，B1，B2，CandD的句型。例，ShiHuangdioftheQindynastybuilttheGreatWallofChinainthe3rdcenturyBC,agiganticconstructionthatmeandersfromGansuprovinceinthewestthrough2,400kmtotheYellowSeaintheeastandrangingfrom4to12minwidth.Ranging->ranges例，Thelargenumberofsizableorderssuggeststhatfactoryoperationsarethriving,butthatthelow-technatureoftheprocessingindicatesthatprofitmarginswillnotbeashighasmightbeexpected.(误)Thelargenumberofsizableorderssuggeststhatfactoryoperationsarethriving,butthelow-technatureoftheprocessingindicatesthatprofitmarginswillnotbeashighasmightbeexpected.例， 64/87NotonlyisChinatheworld’smostpopulousstatebutalsothelargestmarketinthe21stcentury.NotonlyisChinatheworld’smostpopulousstatebutitisalsothelargestmarketinthe21stcentury.Notonly…butalso出现的对等连接词，在对称方面的要求更为严格：notonly与but之间所夹的部分要和but右边对称。原句中把：notonly移到句首成倒装句，造成结果是它与but之间是一个完整的句子。因此but的右边只有名词短语thelargestmarket，显然对称不好。所以，改为完整的从句。注意also的位置不一定要和but放在一起。Also和only一样有强调（focusing）的功能。Notonly修饰动词is，与其对称之下also也和be动词放在一起才好，所以右边是butitisalso，而不是butalsoitis…。Newradiostationsareeitheroverlypartisan,resultinginlopsidedpropaganda,oravoidpoliticscompletely,shirkingthemedia’sresponsibilityasapublicwatchdog.Newradiostationsareeitheroverlypartisan,resultinginlopsidedpropaganda,orcompletelyapolitical,shirkingthemedia’sresponsibilityasapublicwatchdog.Manymodern-dayscientistsarenotatheists,towhomthereisnosuchthingasGod;ratheragnostics,whorefrainfromconjecturingabouttheexistenceofGod,muchlessHisproperties.Not…but.2012年7月30日，P.158高级句型（减化从句，倒装句）16从句减化通则16.1减化从句英文文法以句子为研究对象。英文句型有结构较单纯的单句与结构复杂的复句、合句之分，在前面已分别探讨过。单句的结构比较单纯，只有五种基本句型的变化。作文中若只有单句，除了风 65/87格不够成熟外，表达力也嫌薄弱。间杂复句、合句于文中，则有助于表达较为复杂的观念，亦可丰富句型的变化，使风格趋于成熟。然而，复句、合句包含两个以上的从句，其间往往有重复的元素，因而有进上步精简的空间。若剔除重复或空洞的元素，让复句、合句更加精简、又不失清楚，这就是简化从句。如果说简单句是初级句型，复句、合句是中级句型，那么精简的简化从句就是高级句型。这种句型可以浓缩若干句子的意思一句，同时符合修辞学对清楚与简洁的要求，是讲究修辞的Time大量使用的句型。合句的简化方式是删除对等从句相对位置（主语与主语、动词与动词等等）重复的部分。复句的简化包括名词从句、形容词从句、副词从句三种的简化。16.2从属子句减化的通则不论是名词类、形容词类或是副词类的从属子句，减化的共同原则是：省略主词与be动词，只保留“补语”部分。当然，还有一些变化，少略从属子句的主词会造成主语不清，如何处理？剩下的补语部分如果词类与原来的从属子句词类不同时要怎么办？连接词是否应一并省略？16.2.1为何省略主词如果从属子句的主词是空洞的字眼（one,everybody,people等），或者从属子句在主句中重复出现，从修辞的角度来看皆有违反精简的原则，如果能省略会更简洁。例如，Itiscommoncourtesythatoneshouldwearblackwhileoneattendsafuneral.Itiscommoncourtesytowearblackwhileattendingafuneral.Whetheritisinsuredornot,yourhouse,whichisawoodenbuilding,needsafirealarm.Whetherinsuredornot,yourhouse,awoodenbuilding,needsafirealarm.16.2.2为何省略be动词如果句型是S+V+C，be动词是空词。例，Birdsarelovely. 66/87如果从句中没有be动词省略，那么又可分为两种情形来处理。1）有助动词，变成不定词：这是因为所有的语气助动词都可以改写成be动词加不定式。例，Youmustgoatonce.Youaretogoatonce.Thetrainwillleavein10minutes.Thetrainistoleavein10minutes.HeshoulddoasIsay.HeistodoasIsay.Youmaycallme“Sir”.Youaretocallme“Sir”.Childrencan’twatchthismovie.Childrenarenottowatchthismovie.当然，助动词改写为be加不定式，表达的意思不如原来的精确。这是为求简洁所作的牺牲。不过也可以用goingto，willingto,ableto,likelyto,inorderto,soasto,freeto,boundto来补充。Hestudiedhardsothathecouldgetascholarship.Hestudiedhardtogetascholarship.Hestudiedhardsoastogetascholarship.Hestudiedhardinordertogetascholarship.2）也没有助动词，变成Ving，P.163,2012-07-30从属子句中若无be动词，也无助动词，可以如此思考：先将动词变成进行式，Ving之后的部分则视为补语而保留。例， 67/87Johnremembersthathesawtheladybefore.Johnremembersseeingtheladybefore.总之，要将be动词或助动词省略，留下补语。这是减化子句的最重要的观念。2012-08-0117形容词子句的减化形容词子句是关系子句，主从两个句子一定有重复的元素以建立关系。既然有重复，就可以省略。如果重复的元素（关系词）是关系子句的宾语，通常只是把关系词本身省略。Themanishere.Youaskedabouthim.Themanwhomyouaskedaboutishere.Themanyouaskedaboutishere.17.1补语为VenBeerismostdelicious.Itischilledto6degree.Beerwhichischilledto6degreeismostdelicious.Beerchilledto6degreeismostdelicious.YourbrotherJohn,whowaswoundedinwar,willsoonbesenthome.YourbrotherJohnwoundedinwar,willsoonbesenthome.17.2补语为Ving如果关系从句中的动词是be+Ving形式，只要省略主词与be动词。 68/87TheshipwhichiscomingtoshoreisfromJapan.TheshipcomingtoshoreisfromJapan.如果没有助动词则直接用Ving形式。Myoldcar,whichbreaksdowneveryotherweek,won’tlastmuchlonger.Myoldcarbreakingdowneveryotherweek,won’tlastmuchlonger.17.3补语是toV如果关系子句中动词有语气助动词存在，就会变成不定式补语留下来。Johnistheonewhoshouldgothistime.Johnistheonetogothistime.17.3.1主动与被动Johnisnotamantotrust.(John这人不可信。)Johnisnotamantobetrusted.以上两句都是对的。一个为主语，另一个可有宾语。Johnisnotaman.Onecantrusttheman.Johnisnotamanwhomonecantrust.Johnisnotamanonecantrust.Johnisnotamancantrust.Johnisnotamantotrust.或Johnisnotamanwhocanbetrusted.17.3.2不定式有无宾语的判断不定词如果是及物动词，又有加不加宾语的差别。 69/87Thisisexactlythethingtodo.Thisisexactlythetimetodoit.Thisisexactlythething.Weshoulddothething.Thisisexactlythethingwhichweshoulddo.Thisisexactlythetime.Weshoulddoitatthistime.Thisisexactlythetimewhenweshoulddoit.17.3.3不定式后面有无介词的判断有些不定词片语后面会跟个介系词，像totalkto,todealwith,togetinto等。这是因为介系词后面的受词就是关系词，因而只见介系词不见受词。例如：Hewillbethetoughestguy.Youmustdealwiththeguy.Hewillbethetoughestguywhomyoumustdealwith.(宾语关系词可省略)Hewillbethetoughestguyyoumustdealwith.(助动词可省略)Hewillbethetoughestguytodealwith.17.3.4不定式的主语不清楚，如何处理？如果主词省略会造成意思不清楚，可以安排主词于介系词片语中以受词型态出现。最常见的是介系词for。例如：Ihaveajobthatyourbrothercando.关系子句的关系词that是受词，可以省略，成为：Ihaveajobyourbrothercando. 70/87因为关系句中的主词不可省略，则加入forIhaveajobforyourbrothertodo.17.4补语为一般形容词可直接减化主词（即是关系词）和be动词，只留下补语。HilaryClinton,whoisprettyandintelligent,isapopularFirstLady.HilaryClinton,prettyandintelligent,isapopularFirstLady.形容词只有两种位置：名词短语中（aprettywoman）及补语位置（thewomanispretty）。如果乍看之下两个位置都不是，那么多半就是减化形容词子句的残留补语。17.5补语为名词关系子句是形容词类，如果减化主语和be动词，剩下的是名词。传统语法称之为同位语。BillClinton,whoisPresidentoftheU.S.,isaBabyBoomer.BillClinton,PresidentoftheU.S.,isBabyBoomer.18名词子句的减化名词子句的减化与其他词类的从属子句相同，都是省略主词与be动词，只留下补语。因为主语与主句中的元素，或主语原本没有明确的内容（someone,people），所以将主语省略。由于that仅仅是连接词无意义，可省略。当然，如果连接词是who,what,where就不要省略了。省略后有两种情况：Ving和toV。（动名词和不定式）。18.1Ving形式如果名词子句中没有be动词，也没有动词，则把动词加上-ing。 71/8718.1.1主词位置ThatIdrinkgoodwinewithfriendsismygreatestenjoyment.Drinkinggoodwinewithfriendsismygreatestenjoyment.18.1.2宾语动词的宾语Manyhusbandenjoythattheydothecooking.Manyhusbandenjoydoingthecooking.介词的宾语Hegotusedtosomething.Heworkedlateintothenight.Hegotusedtoworkinglateintothenight.补语的位置Hisfavoritepastimeisthathegoesfishingonweekends.Hisfavoritepastimeisgoingfishingonweekends.主语不能省略时Iimaginedthatabeautifulgirlwassingingtome.Iimaginedabeautifulgirlsingingtome.所有格来处理Thathecallsmygirlfriendeverydayistoomuchforme.Hiscallingmygirlfriendeverydayistoomuchforme.加介词来处理，这只适用于特殊的句型。例： 72/87Iamworriedthatmysonliesallthetime.Iamworriedaboutthefactthatmysonliesallthetime.Iamworriedaboutmyson’slyingallthetime.如何处理被动Thatanyoneiscalledaliaristhegreatestinsult.Beingcalledaliarthegreatestinsult.Iamlookingforwardtosomething.Iaminvitedtotheparty.Iamlookingforwardtobeinginvitedtotheparty.动词是单纯的be动词则通通改成being+补语。Thatoneisateacherrequiresalotofpatience.Beingateacherrequiresalotofpatience.18.2减化后剩下的补语是toVThechildrenexpectthattheycangetpresentsforChristmas.ThechildrenexpecttogetpresentsforChristmas.不定式即“不一定是什么词类”，可做名词、形容词、副词。但不可放在介词后面。这种情况要改成Ving的形式。Ithinkitstrangethatmanshouldfearghosts.Ithinkitstrangetofearghosts.主语不适合省略 73/87Iwantthatyoushouldgo.Iwantthatyouaretogo.Iwantyoutogo.ThattheClippersshouldbeattheLakerswasquiteamarvelousfeat.FortheClipperstobeattheLakerswasquiteamarvelousfeat.（通过for来保留主语）18.3代表疑问句的名词化减化WhatshouldIdo?Idonotknowthequestion.IdonotknowwhatIshoulddo.Idonotknowwhattodo.ShouldIvotefortheKMT?Ican’tdecidethequestion.IcannotdecidewhetherIshouldvotefortheKMT.IcannotdecidewhethertovotefortheKMT.18.4ToV与Ving的比较这种比较在原来的完整句中，可以清晰的看出区别。Heforgotthatheshouldseehisdentistthatday.（有助动词）Heforgottoseehisdentistthatday.Heforgotthathesawthemanbefore.（无助动词）Heforgotseeingthemanbefore.Iwouldlovetodrivetoworkinmyowncar. 74/87IwouldlovethatIcandrivetoworkinmyowncar.Iavoidbeinglatetoanyappointment.IavoidthatIamlatetoanyappointment.Ihopetogettotheconcertontime.IhopethatIcangettotheconcertontime.BCABAABAAC2012-08-09P.18519副词子句简化之一所有从属从句的简化的原则都一样，即为求精简，把从句的主语与be动词省略，只留下补语。省略主语是为了避免重复，但如果省略会造成句意的模糊，主语就得另行处理；省略be动词是因为它本身没有任何意义。19.1减化Ving补语若副词从句是一般文法书所谓的进行式（be+Ving），那么省略主语和be动词和be动词后就只剩Ving补语。反之，若没有be动词可省略，也没有语气动词可供改写，就得先改成进行式，再省略be动词，可得到Ving的结果。例Whilehewaslyingonthecouch,theboyfellasleep.Whilelyingonthecouch,theboyfellasleep.19.1.1连接词是否保留如果意义清楚，则可简化。Lyingonthecouch,theboyfellasleep. 75/8719.1.2没有be动词时如果原来的副词从句没有be词，也没有语气助词（can，must，may），只有普通动词，那么就会变成Ving的形式。例，Becausewehavenothingtodohere,wemightaswellgohome.Havingnothingtodohere,wemightaswellgohome.19.1.3应该省略的连接词通常表示原因的连接词because，since，要省略。19.1.4应该保留的连接词Althoughwehavenothingtodohere,wecannotleaveearly.Althoughhavingnothingtodohere,wecannotleaveearly.Heraisedhishand,asifhewastryingtohither.Heraisedhishand,asiftryingtohither.19.1.5Being的运用AsIamastudent,Ican’taffordtogetmarried.Asastudent,Icannotaffordtogetmarried.Beingastudent,Icannotaffordtogetmarried.两种形式均可19.1.6兼作介词的连接词：before,after,sinceBeforehewasinschool,heusedtobeanaughtychild.Beforebeinginschool,heusedtobeanaughtchild.19.1.7时态的问题Afterhewrotetheletter,heputittomail. 76/87Afterwritingtheletter,heputittomail.Havingwrittentheletter,heputittomail.19.2DanglingModifier错误副词从句的减化有一个相当严格的要求：主语只有在与主句相同才可省略。如果忽略这一点就省，会产生语法、修辞的错误。Whenthechildwasalreadysleepingsoundlyinbed,hermothercametokisshergoodnight.Thechildalreadysleepingsoundlyinbed,hermothercametokisshergoodnight.19.3保留主语的注意事项第一、连接词要省略。减化子句一般要省略主语，be动词与连接词。如果主词保留，连接词又留下，就只是省掉一个be动词。第二、后面是分词补语（现在分词或过去分词）。CBCBB，DBBDB，2012年8月10日20副词从句减化之二20.1减化为Ven从句子句减化的共同原则是省略主语与be动词。副词子句中如果原本是被动Be+Ven，那么减化之后没了be动词，就会成为Ven的型态。例如，Afterhewasshotintheknee,hecouldn’tfight.Shotintheknee,hecouldn’tfight.20.1.1是否保留连接词是根据语意来确定的。如，Althoughhewasshotintheknee,hekilledthreemoreenemysoldiers. 77/87Althoughshotintheknee,hekilledthreemoreenemysoldiers.20.1.2三个特殊的连接词Before，after,since这三个词也可做介词，如果要用，则后面接名词。Beforeitwasredecorated,thehousewasinbadshape.Beforebeingredecorated,thehousewasinbadshape.Beforeredecoration,thehousewasinbadshape.也就是说，这三个词后面，如果用被动，要用being+VEN的形式。如果不用这三个词就直接用VEN表被动就行。原因是这三个词此处作介词，介词后不能跟形容词（VEN）。20.1.3如何用HavingbeenBecausetheyhadbeenwarned,theyproceededcarefully.Havingbeenwarned,theyproceededcarefully.20.1.4主语不同时Whenthecoffinhadbeeninterred,theministersaidafewcomfortingwords.Thecoffinhavingbeeninterred,theministersaidafewcomfortingwords.20.2减化为toV如果原来的副词子句中有语气助动词（can,should,must），带有不确定的语气，减化之后就会成为不定词。Hestudiedhardinorderthathecouldgetascholarship.Hestudiedhardinordertogetascholarship.I’llonlybetoogladifIcanhelp.I’llonlybetoogladtohelp. 78/8720.3单纯的be动词如果副词子句的动词是单纯的be动词，后面可能是一般的名词、形容词类的补语。要减化时，首先得注意主语与主句的主语要一致，然后才可以把连接词留下来，省去主词和be动词，留下补语。Whenyouareunderattack,youmusttakecoverimmediately.Whenunderattack,youmusttakeoverimmediately.Whileitissmallinsize,thecompanyisverycompetitive.Whilesmallinsize,thecompanyisverycompetitive.Althoughhewasadoctorbytraining,Asimovbecameawriter.Althoughadoctorbytraining,Asimovbecameawriter.副词连接词不同于名词或形容词从句，是有意义的连接词，减化时常要留下来。一旦留下连接词，那么它是由副词从句减化而成这一点就十分明显。所以，拿掉主语与be动词后，不论什么词类的补语――名词、形容词、介系词片语都可留下来。不过，有两点要注意：一是，如果连接词是before或after，减化为介系词，后面只能接名词。如果是because或是since，减化后通常不能原样保留下来，改为becauseof,asaresultof之类的介系词。20.4改为介系词片语Whenshearrivedattheparty,shefoundallthepeoplegone.与When接近的介词是on或upon，则Uponarrivingattheparty,shefoundallthepeoplegone.Uponherarrivalattheparty,shefoundallthepeoplegone.Whenshecompletedtheproject,shewaspromoted.Uponcompletingtheproject,shewaspromoted.(错误)Uponcompletiontheproject,shewaspromoted. 79/87Uponcompletionoftheproject,shewaspromoted.Theconstructionworkwasdelayedbecauseithadbeenraining.Theconstructionworkwasdelaybecauseofrain.Although与despite或inspiteof意思相近。Despitehisopposition,theplanwascarriedout.If与incaseof近似Ifthereshouldbeafire,thesprinklerwillbestarted.Incaseofafire,thesprinklerwillbestarted.Because改成withBecausetheexamisonlyaweekaway,Ihavenotimetowaste.Withtheexamonlyaweekaway,Ihavenotimetowaste.减化子句这个概念非常重要，对于认识与写作复杂的句型有极大的帮助。21减化从句的练习两处原则：一、对等子句中，相对应的位置（主语与主语，动词与动词）。如果重复，择一个弹性省略。二、从属子句中（名词子句、形容词子句与副词子句）中，省略主语与be动词两部分，一定是留下补语。如果主语并非重复或空洞的元素，就要保留下来。总之，尽量删除重复或空洞的元素。例，Thepatienthadnotrespondedtothestandardtreatment.Thisfactgreatlypuzzledthemedicalteam. 80/87Themedicalteamgreatlypuzzledthatthepatient…动词减化的共通原则：一、有be动词，即省略be动词二、有语气助动词（can,must,should…）則改为不定式（toV）；三、除此之外的动词一律加上-ving保留下来。Thepatient’snothavingrespondedtothestandardtreatmentgreatlypuzzledthemedicalteam.Thepatient’sfailuretorespondtothestandardtreatmentgreatlypuzzledthemedicalteam.例二：Thesummertouristsareallgone.Theresorttownhasresumeditsairoftranquility.Nowthatthesummertouristsareallgone,theresorttownhasresumeditsairoftranquility.(With)thesummertouristsallgone,theresorttownhasresumeditsairoftranquility.不加with则较书面语。例三：Confuciusmusthavewrittenonpiecesofbamboo.ConfuciuslivedintheEasternZhouDynasty.PaperwasnotavailableuntiltheEasternHanDynasty.Confucius,wholivedintheEasternZhouDynasty,musthavewrittenonpiecesofbamboo.Confucius,livingintheEastern,musthavewritten…,becausepaperwasnotavailable… 81/87Confucius,livinginthe…,musthavewritten…,papernotbeingavailable…例四：Themovable-typepresswasinventedbyGutenberg.Themovable-typepresswasintroducedtoEnglandin1485.ThiseventmarkedtheendoftheDarkAgesthere.Themovable-typepress,inventedbyGutenberg,wasintroducedtoEnglandin1485,markingtheendoftheDarkAgesthere.例五：LeewaseducatedintheU.S.Leeshowsaglobalviewattimes.Leedealswitheconomicmattersatthesetimes.EducatedintheU.S.,Leeshowsaglobalviewwhendealingwitheconomicmatters.例六：I’dlikesomething.Youwillmeetsomepeople.Thenyoucanleave.I’dlikeyoutomeetsomepeoplebeforeyou(can)leave.例七：1.Ihavenotpracticedverymuch.2.Ishouldhavepracticedverymuch.3.Iamworriedaboutsomething. 82/874.Imightforgetsomething.5.WhatshouldIsayduringthespeechcontest?(1+2)IhavenotpracticedasmuchasIshould(havepracticed).(+3)BecauseIhavenotpracticedasmuchasIshould,Iamworriedaboutsomething.NothavingpracticedasmuchasIshould,Iamworriedaboutwhattosayduringthespeechcontest.例八：1.JamesSungwasSecretaryGeneralofKMTthen.2.JamesSungisGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow.3.JamesSungsawsomething.4.TheKMTfailedintheimportantLegislativeYuanelection.5.JamesSungofferedsomething.6.Hewouldassumeresponsibility.7.Hewouldtenderhisresignation.(1+2)JamesSungwasSecretaryGeneraloftheKMTthenandheisGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow.(A)JamesSungwasSecretaryGeneraloftheKMTthenandGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow.(3+4)JamesSungsawthattheKMTfailedintheimportantLegislativeYuanelection.(B)JamesSungsawtheKMT’sfailureintheimportantLegislativeYuanelection.(5+6)JamesSungofferedthathe(would)assumeresponsibility.JamesSungofferedtoassumeresponsibility.先把句A拿出来。句A内容是描述宋楚瑜的职位，有补充形容宋楚瑜身份的功能，所以拿它来做子句。（+A）JamesSung,whowasSecretaryGeneraloftheKMTthenandGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow,offeredtoassumeresponsibility. 83/87JamesSung,SecretaryGeneraloftheKMTthenandGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow,offeredtoassumeresponsibility(+B)BecausehesawtheKMT’sfailureintheimportantLegislativeYuanelection,JamesSung,SecretaryGeneraloftheKMTthenandGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow,offeredtoassumeresponsibility.SeeingtheKMT’sfailureintheimportantLegislativeYuanelection,JamesSung,SecretaryGeneraloftheKMTthenandGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow,offeredtoassumeresponsibility.SeeingtheKMT’sfailureintheimportantLegislativeYuanelection,JamesSung,SecretaryGeneraloftheKMTthenandGovernorofTaiwanProvincenow,offeredtoassumeresponsibilitybyrenderinghisresignation.如开场白中所述，减化子句是高难度的句型，富有挑战性。读者若看到这里都可了解到。通过大量的阅读，日积月累的培养。有清晰的句型观念，再加上大量的阅读，日后自然能写出一手好文章。22倒装句修辞功能的倒装句：恰当地运用倒装句，可以强调语气，增强清楚性与简洁性，以及更流畅地连接前后的句子。22.1比较级的倒装一、从句中助动词或be动词不宜省略。二、主语后面有比较长的修饰语。例，Girlslikecatsmorethanboys.（不清楚）Girlslikecatsmorethanboysdo.Girlslikecatsmorethantheylikeboys.Girlslikecatsmorethanboys,whoasaruleareacruellot,do.(BAD) 84/87Girlslikecatsmorethandoboys,whoasaruleareacruellot.22.2关系从句的倒装关系子句的关系词，如果不是原来就在句首位置，就要向前移到句首让它发挥连接词的功能。例，Thepresidentisaman.Aheavyresponsibility,whetherhelikesitornot,fallsonhim.Thepresidentisamanonwhomaheavyresponsibility,whetherhelikesitornot,falls.(BAD)Thepresidentisamanonwhomfallsaheavyresponsibility,whetherhelikesitornot.22.3假设语气的倒装这种倒装较简单，做法是把连接词（if）省略，把be动词或助动词移到主语前面来取代连接词的功能。例如，IfIhadbeenhere,Icouldhavedonesomethingtohelp.HadIbeenthere,Icouldhavedonesomethingtohelp.22.4引用句的倒装在直接引句（用到双引号者）与间接引句（没有双引号者）中，都可以选择使用倒装来凸显出句中的重点。Thepolicesaid,“Nonewaskilledintheaccident.”如果引句内文才是读者急于知道的事情，那么用倒装。“Nonewaskilledintheaccident,”saidthepolice.Cholera,warnstheWHO,iscomingback.选择倒装的修辞原因是为了凸显引用句的内容，把它摆在句首最显著的地位。 85/8722.5类似thereis/are的倒装这种倒装句是把地方副词挪到句首，句型和thereis/are句型很接近，修辞在于强调语气，以及衔接上下文。例如：Theregoesthetrain.(你看，火车开走了！)这个句了以倒装句来强调动词goes，表示[正在开走]。Hereisyourticketfortheopera.(你的票，拿去吧！)除here，there外，其它的地方副词也可以倒装，如，InLochNessdwellsamysteriousmonster.Onthewireperchedalargeblackbird.衔接上下文，TothewestofTaiwanliesSouthernChina.TotheeastspreadstheexpanseofthePacific.22.6否定副词开头的倒装Not,never,hardly,barely，修饰非主语，如，Wedon’thavesuchluckeveryday.Noteverydaydowehavesuchluck.Iwillnotstopwaitingforyouuntilyoumarried.NotuntilyoumarriedwillIstopwaitingforyou.Ihadhardlysatdowntoworkwhenthephonerang.HardlyHadIsatdowntoworkwhenthephonerang.注意只有加强语气时，才倒装。如果是用仅仅用来修饰主语，则不用倒装。Hardlyanyoneknowhim. 86/87OnlyIsawhimyesterday.Isawhimonlyyesterday.OnlyyesterdaydidIseehim.(用来修饰副词，只在昨天)Henotonlypassedtheexambutalsoscoredatthetop.(Wrong!)Notonlydidhepasstheexambutalsoscoredatthetop.(Wrong!)(Bad)Notonlydidhepasstheexambutalsohescoredatthetop.(Right)Notonlydidhepasstheexambuthealsoscoredatthetop.Butalso也可分开使用。Maryispretty.Soishersister.23心得1.这是一本可以从头看到尾的语法书，而不是通常的语法字典。2.动词be的作用其实在高级和复杂语法中是极其重要的。3.补语的作用与be动词紧密相关。4.动名词是名词从句的省略。5.形状不固定的名词，如水。冠词要注意名词。6.感官动词后面，如是持续动作+Ving，如是瞬时有原型不定式7.不定式约等于情态动词从句，注意动作的主语。8.主谓一致时，介词不用理睬，可删除。如是all等空词，则要删掉这些空词。9.名词从句连接词that＝thething10.空洞的词all，half，be 87/872012年8月13日(END)