世界名著-EssaysonLife 147页

EssaysonLife,ArtandSciencebySamuelButlerContents:IntroductionQuisDesiderio?RamblingsinCheapsideTheAunt,TheNieces,andtheDogHowtomakethebestoflifeTheSanctuaryofMontrigoneAMedievalGirlSchoolArtintheValleyofSaasThoughtandLanguageTheDeadlockinDarwinismINTRODUCTIONItishardlynecessarytoapologiseforthemiscellaneouscharacterofthefollowingcollectionofessays.SamuelButlerwasamanofsuchunusualversatility,andhisinterestsweresomanyandsovariousthathisliteraryremainswereboundtocoverawidefield.Neverthelessitwillbefoundthatseveralofthesubjectstowhichhedevotedmuchtimeandlabourarenotrepresentedinthesepages.Ihavenotthoughtitnecessarytoreprintanyofthenumerous pamphletsandarticleswhichhewroteupontheIliadandOdyssey,sincethesewereallmergedin"TheAuthoressoftheOdyssey,"whichgiveshismaturedviewsuponeverythingrelatingtotheHomericpoems.ForasimilarreasonIhavenotincludedanessayontheevidencefortheResurrectionofJesusChrist,whichheprintedin1865forprivatecirculation,sincehesubsequentlymadeextensiveuseofitin"TheFairHaven."Twooftheessaysinthiscollectionwereoriginallydeliveredaslectures;theremainderwerepublishedinTheUniversalReviewduring1888,1889,and1890.Ishouldperhapsexplainwhytwootheressaysofhis,whichalsoappearedinTheUniversalReview,havebeenomitted.Thefirstofthese,entitled"L"AffaireHolbein-Rippel,"relatestoadrawingofHolbein"s"DansedesPaysans,"intheBasleMuseum,whichisusuallydescribedasacopy,butwhichButlerbelievedtobetheworkofHolbeinhimself.Thisessayrequirestobeillustratedinsoelaborateamannerthatitwasimpossibletoincludeitinabookofthissize.Thesecondessay,whichisasketchofthecareerofthesculptorTabachetti,waspublishedasthefirstsectionofanarticleentitled"ASculptorandaShrine,"ofwhichthesecondsectionisheregivenunderthetitle,"TheSanctuaryofMontrigone."ThesectiondevotedtothesculptorrepresentsallthatButlerthenknewaboutTabachetti,butsinceitwaswrittenvariousdocumentshavecometolight,principallyowingtotheinvestigationsofCavaliereFrancescoNegri,ofCasaleMonferrato,whichnegativesomeofButler"smostcherishedconclusions.HadButlerlivedhewouldeitherhaverewrittenhisessayinaccordancewithCavaliereNegri"sdiscoveries,ofwhichhefullyrecognisedthevalue,orincorporatedthemintotherevisededitionof"ExVoto,"whichheintendedtopublish.Asitstands,theessayrequiressomuchrevisionthatIhavedecidedtoomititaltogether,andtopostponegivingEnglishreadersafullaccountofTabachetti"scareeruntilasecondeditionof"ExVoto"isrequired.MeanwhileIhavegivenabriefsummaryofthemainfactsofTabachetti"slifeinanote(page154)totheessayon"ArtintheValleyofSaas."AnyonewhowishesforfurtherdetailsofthesculptorandhisworkwillfindtheminCavaliereNegri"spamphlet,"IlSantuariodiCrea"(Alessandria,1902). Thethreeessaysgroupedtogetherunderthetitleof"TheDeadlockinDarwinism"mayberegardedasapostscripttoButler"sfourbooksonevolution,viz.,"LifeandHabit,""Evolution,OldandNew,""UnconsciousMemory"and"LuckorCunning."Anoccasionforthepublicationoftheseessaysseemedtobeaffordedbytheappearancein1889ofMr.AlfredRusselWallace"s"Darwinism";andalthoughnearlyfourteenyearshaveelapsedsincetheywerepublishedintheUniversalReview,Ihavenofearthattheywillbefoundtobeoutofdate.Howfar,indeed,theproblemembodiedinthedeadlockofwhichButlerspeaksisfromsolutionwasconclusivelyshownbythecorrespondencewhichappearedintheTimesinMay1903,occasionedbysomeremarksmadeatUniversityCollegebyLordKelvininmovingavoteofthankstoProfessorHenslowafterhislectureon"PresentDayRationalism."LordKelvin"sclaimforarecognitionofthefactthatinorganicnaturescientificthoughtiscompelledtoaccepttheideaofsomekindofdirectivepower,andhisstatementthatbiologistsarecomingoncemoretoafirmacceptanceofavitalprinciple,drewfromseveraldistinguishedmenofscienceretortsheatedenoughtoprovebeyondadoubtthatthegulfbetweenthetwomaindivisionsofevolutionistsisaswideto-dayasitwaswhenButlerwrote.Itwillbewell,perhaps,forthebenefitofreaderswhohavenotfollowedthehistoryofthetheoryofevolutionduringitslaterdevelopments,tostateinafewwordswhatthesetwomaindivisionsare.Allevolutionistsagreethatthedifferencesbetweenspeciesarecausedbytheaccumulationandtransmissionofvariations,buttheydonotagreeastothecausestowhichthevariationsaredue.Theviewheldbytheolderevolutionists,Buffon,ErasmusDarwinandLamarck,whohavebeenfollowedbymanymodernthinkers,includingHerbertSpencerandButler,isthatthevariationsoccurmainlyastheresultofeffortanddesign;theoppositeview,whichisthatadvocatedbyMr.Wallacein"Darwinism,"isthatthevariationsoccurmerelyastheresultofchance.Theformerissometimescalledthetheologicalview,becauseitrecognisesthepresenceinorganicnatureofdesign,whetheritbecalledcreativepower,directiveforce,directivity,orvitalprinciple;thelatterview,inwhichtheexistenceofdesignisabsolutelynegatived,isnowusuallydescribedasWeismannism,fromthenameofthewriterwhohasbeenitsprincipaladvocateinrecentyears.Inconclusion,ImustthankmyfriendMr.HenryFestingJonesmostwarmlyfortheinvaluableassistancewhichhehasgivenmeinpreparingtheseessaysforpublication,incorrectingtheproofs,andincompilingtheintroductionandnotes. R.A.STREATFEILD.QUISDESIDERIO...?{1}LikeMr.WilkieCollins,I,too,havebeenaskedtolaysomeofmyliteraryexperiencesbeforethereadersoftheUniversalReview.ItoccurredtomethattheReviewmustbeindeeduniversalbeforeitcouldopenitspagestoonesoobscureasmyself;but,nothingdauntedbythedistinguishedcompanyamongwhichIwasforthefirsttimeaskedtomove,IresolvedtodoasIwastold,andwenttotheBritishMuseumtoseewhatbooksIhadwritten.Havingrefreshedmymemorybyaglanceatthecatalogue,Iwasabouttotryanddiminishthelargeandever-increasingcircleofmynon-readerswhenIbecameawareofacalamitythatbroughtmetoastandstill,andindeedbidsfair,sofarasIcanseeatpresent,toputanendtomyliteraryexistencealtogether.IshouldexplainthatIcannotwriteunlessIhaveaslopingdesk,andthereading-roomoftheBritishMuseum,wherealoneIcancomposefreely,isunprovidedwithslopingdesks.Likeeveryotherorganism,ifIcannotgetexactlywhatIwantImakeshiftwiththenextthingtoit;true,therearenodesksinthereading-room,but,asIonceheardavisitorfromthecountrysay,"itcontainsalargenumberofveryinterestingworks."Iknowitwasnotright,andhopetheMuseumauthoritieswillnotbesevereuponmeifanyofthemreadsthisconfession;butIwantedadesk,andsetmyselftoconsiderwhichofthemanyveryinterestingworkswhichagratefulnationplacesatthedisposalofitswould-beauthorswasbestsuitedformypurpose.FormerereadingIsupposeonebookisprettymuchasgoodasanother;butthechoiceofadesk-bookisamoreseriousmatter.Itmustbeneithertoothicknortoothin;itmustbelargeenoughtomakeasubstantialsupport;itmustbestronglyboundsoasnottoyieldorgive;itmustnotbetootroublesometocarrybackwardsandforwards;anditmustliveonshelfC,D,orE,sothatthereneedbenostoopingorreachingtoohigh.Thesearetheconditionswhichareallygoodbookmustfulfil;simple,however,astheyare,itis surprisinghowfewvolumescomplywiththemsatisfactorily;moreover,beingperhapstoosensitivelyconscientious,Iallowedanotherconsiderationtoinfluenceme,andwassincerelyanxiousnottotakeabookwhichwouldbeinconstantuseforreferencebyreaders,moreespeciallyas,ifIdidthis,Imightfindmyselfdisturbedbytheofficials.ForweeksImadeexperimentsuponsundrypoeticalandphilosophicalworks,whosenamesIhaveforgotten,butcouldnotsucceedinfindingmyidealdesk,untilatlength,morebyluckthancunning,IhappenedtolightuponFrost"s"LivesofEminentChristians,"whichIhadnosoonertriedthanIdiscoveredittobetheveryperfectionandneplusultraofeverythingthatabookshouldbe.ItlivedinCaseNo.2008,andIaccordinglytookatoncetosittinginRowB,whereforthelastdozenyearsorsoIhavesateversince.ThefirstthingIhavedonewheneverIwenttotheMuseumhasbeentotakedownFrost"s"LivesofEminentChristians"andcarryittomyseat.Itisnotthecustomofmodernwriterstorefertotheworkstowhichtheyaremostdeeplyindebted,andIhavenever,thatIremember,mentioneditbynamebefore;butitistothisbookalonethatIhavelookedforsupportduringmanyyearsofliterarylabour,anditisroundthistomeinvaluablevolumethatallmyownhavepagebypagegrownup.ThereisnoneintheMuseumtowhichIhavebeenunderanythinglikesuchconstantobligation,nonewhichIcansoillspare,andnonewhichIwouldchoosesoreadilyifIwereallowedtoselectonesinglevolumeandkeepitformyown.OnfindingmyselfaskedforacontributiontotheUniversalReview,Iwent,asIhaveexplained,totheMuseum,andpresentlyrepairedtobookcaseNo.2008togetmyfavouritevolume.Alas!itwasintheroomnolonger.Itwasnotinuse,foritsplacewasfilledupalready;besides,nooneeveruseditbutmyself.WhethertheghostofthelateMr.Frosthasbeensoeminentlyunchristianastointerfere,orwhethertheauthoritieshaveremovedthebookinignoranceofthesteadydemandwhichtherehasbeenforitonthepartofatleastonereader,arepointsIcannotdetermine.AllIknowisthatthebookisgone,andIfeelasWordsworthisgenerallysupposedtohavefeltwhenhebecameawarethatLucywasinhergrave,andexclaimedsoemphaticallythatthiswouldmakeaconsiderabledifferencetohim,orwordstothateffect.NowIthinkofit,Frost"s"LivesofEminentChristians"wasverylikeLucy.TheoneresidedatDovedaleinDerbyshire,theotherin GreatRussellStreet,Bloomsbury.IadmitthatIdonotseetheresemblancehereatthismoment,butifItrytodevelopmyperceptionIshalldoubtlesserelongfindamarvellouslystrikingone.Inotherrespects,however,thanmerelocalhabitatthelikenessisobvious.Lucywasnotparticularlyattractiveeitherinsideorout--nomorewasFrost"s"LivesofEminentChristians";therewerefewtopraiseher,andofthosefewstillfewercouldbringthemselvestolikeher;indeed,Wordsworthhimselfseemstohavebeentheonlypersonwhothoughtmuchaboutheronewayortheother.Inlikemanner,IbelieveIwastheonlyreaderwhothoughtmuchonewayortheotheraboutFrost"s"LivesofEminentChristians,"butthisinitselfwasoneoftheattractionsofthebook;andasforthegriefwerespectivelyfeltandfeel,IbelievemyowntobeasdeepasWordsworth"s,ifnotmoreso.Isaidabove,"asWordsworthisgenerallysupposedtohavefelt";foranyoneimbuedwiththespiritofmodernsciencewillreadWordsworth"spoemwithdifferenteyesfromthoseofamereliterarycritic.HewillnotethatWordsworthismostcarefulnottoexplainthenatureofthedifferencewhichthedeathofLucywilloccasiontohim.Hetellsusthattherewillbeadifference;buttherethematterends.Thesuperficialreadertakesitthathewasverysorryshewasdead;itis,ofcourse,possiblethathemayhaveactuallybeenso,buthehasnotsaidthis.Onthecontrary,hehashintedplainlythatshewasugly,andgenerallydisliked;shewasonlylikeavioletwhenshewashalf-hiddenfromtheview,andonlyfairasastarwhenthereweresofewstarsoutthatitwaspracticallyimpossibletomakeaninvidiouscomparison.Iftherewereasmanyaseventwostarsthelikenesswasfelttobeatanend.IfWordsworthhadimprudentlypromisedtomarrythisyoungpersonduringatimewhenhehadbeenunusuallylonginkeepingtogoodresolutions,andhadafterwardsseensomeonewhomhelikedbetter,thenLucy"sdeathwouldundoubtedlyhavemadeaconsiderabledifferencetohim,andthisisallthathehaseversaidthatitwoulddo.Whatrighthavewetoputglossesuponthemasterlyreticenceofapoet,andcredithimwithfeelingspossiblytheveryreverseofthoseheactuallyentertained?Sometimes,indeed,Ihavebeeninclinedtothinkthatamysteryisbeinghintedatmoredarkthananycritichassuspected.Idonothappentopossessacopyofthepoem,butthewriter,ifIamnotmistaken,saysthat"fewcouldknowwhenLucyceasedtobe.""Ceasedtobe"isasuspiciouslyeuphemisticexpression,andthewords"fewcouldknow"arenotapplicabletotheordinarypeaceful deathofadomesticservantsuchasLucyappearstohavebeen.Nomatterhowobscurethedeceased,anynumberofpeoplecommonlycanknowthedayandhourofhisorherdemise,whereasinthiscaseweareexpresslytolditwouldbeimpossibleforthemtodoso.Wordsworthwasnothingifnotaccurate,andwouldnothavesaidthatfewcouldknow,butthatfewactuallydidknow,unlesshewasawareofcircumstancesthatprecludedallbutthoseimplicatedinthecrimeofherdeathfromknowingtheprecisemomentofitsoccurrence.IfLucywasthekindofpersonnotobscurelypourtrayedinthepoem;ifWordsworthhadmurderedher,eitherbycuttingherthroatorsmotheringher,inconcert,perhaps,withhisfriendsSoutheyandColeridge;andifhehadthusfoundhimselfreleasedfromanengagementwhichhadbecomeirksometohim,orpossiblyfromthethreatofanactionforbreachofpromise,thenthereisnotasyllableinthepoemwithwhichhecrownshiscrimethatisnotalivewithmeaning.Onanyothersuppositiontothegeneralreaderitisunintelligible.Wecannotbetooguardedintheinterpretationsweputuponthewordsofgreatpoets.Taketheyoungladywhoneverlovedthedeargazelle--andIdon"tbelieveshedid;weareapttothinkthatMooreintendedustoseeinthiscreationofhisfancyasweet,amiable,butmostunfortunateyoungwoman,whereasallhehastoldusaboutherpointstoanexactlyoppositeconclusion.Inreality,hewishedustoseeayoungladywhohadbeenanhabitualcomplainerfromherearliestchildhood;whoseplantshadalwaysdiedassoonassheboughtthem,whilethosebelongingtoherneighbourshadflourished.Theinferenceisobvious,norcanwereasonablydoubtthatMooreintendedustodrawit;ifherplantsweretheveryfirsttofadeaway,shewasevidentlytheveryfirsttoneglectorotherwisemaltreatthem.Shedidnotgivethemenoughwater,orleftthedoorofherfern-easeopenwhenshewascookingherdinneratthegasstove,orkeptthemtooneartheparaffinoil,orotherlikefolly;andasforhertemper,seewhatthegazellesdid;aslongastheydidnotknowher"well,"theycouldjustmanagetoexist,butwhentheygottounderstandherrealcharacter,oneafteranotherfeltthatdeathwastheonlycourseopentoit,andaccordinglydiedratherthanlivewithsuchamistress.True,theyoungladyherselfsaidthegazelleslovedher;butdisagreeablepeopleareapttothinkthemselvesamiable,andinviewofthecourseinvariablytakenbythegazellesthemselvesanyoneaccustomedtoweighevidencewillholdthatshewasprobablymistaken.Imust,however,returntoFrost"s"LivesofEminentChristians."I willleavenoneoftheambiguityaboutmywordsinwhichMooreandWordsworthseemtohavedelighted.Iamverysorrythebookisgone,andknownotwheretoturnforitssuccessor.TillIhavefoundasubstituteIcanwritenomore,andIdonotknowhowtofindevenatolerableone.IshouldtryavolumeofMigne"s"CompleteCourseofPatrology,"butIdonotlikebooksinmorethanonevolume,forthevolumesvaryinthickness,andonenevercanrememberwhichonetook;thefourvolumes,however,ofBedeinGiles"s"AnglicanFathers"arenotopentothisobjection,andIhavereservedthemforfavourableconsideration.Mather"s"Magnalia"mightdo,butthebindingdoesnotpleaseme;Cureton"s"CorpusIgnatianum"mightalsodoifitwerenottoothin.IdonotliketakingNorton"s"GenuinenessoftheGospels,"asitisjustpossiblesomeonemaybewantingtoknowwhethertheGospelsaregenuineornot,andbeunabletofindoutbecauseIhavegotMr.Norton"sbook.Baxter"s"ChurchHistoryofEngland,"Lingard"s"Anglo-SaxonChurch,"andCardwell"s"DocumentaryAnnals,"thoughnoneofthemasgoodasFrost,areworksofconsiderablemerit;butonthewholeIthinkArvine"s"CyclopediaofMoralandReligiousAnecdote"isperhapstheonebookintheroomwhichcomeswithinmeasurabledistanceofFrost.Ishouldprobablytrythisbookfirst,butithasafatalobjectioninitstooseductivetitle."Iamnotcurious,"asMissLottieVennesaysinoneofherparts,"butIliketoknow,"andImightbetemptedtopervertthebookfromitsnaturalusesandopenit,soastofindoutwhatkindofathingamoralandreligiousanecdoteis.Iknow,ofcourse,thatthereareagreatmanyanecdotesintheBible,butnoonethinksofcallingthemeithermoralorreligious,thoughsomeofthemcertainlyseemasiftheymightfairlyfindaplaceinMr.Arvine"swork.Therearesomethings,however,whichitisbetternottoknow,andtakeitallroundIdonotthinkIshouldbewiseinputtingmyselfinthewayoftemptation,andadoptingArvineasthesuccessortomybelovedandlamentedFrost.SomesuccessorImustfind,orImustgiveupwritingaltogether,andthisIshouldbesorrytodo.Ihaveonlyasyetwrittenaboutathird,orfromthat--countingworkswrittenbutnotpublished--toahalf,ofthebookswhichIhavesetmyselftowrite.Itwouldnotsomuchmatterifoldagewasnotstaringmeintheface.Dr.Parrsaiditwas"abeastlyshameforanoldmannottohavelaiddownagoodcellarofportinhisyouth";I,likethegreaternumber,Isuppose,ofthosewhowritebooksatall,writeinorderthatImayhavesomethingtoreadinmyoldagewhenIcanwritenolonger.IknowwhatIshalllikebetterthananyonecantellme,andwrite accordingly;ifmycareerisnippedinthebud,asseemsonlytoolikely,IreallydonotknowwhereelseIcanturnforpresentagreeableoccupation,noryethowtomakesuitableprovisionformylateryears.Otherwriterscan,ofcourse,makeexcellentprovisionfortheirownoldages,buttheycannotdosoformine,anymorethanIshouldsucceedifIweretotrytocaterfortheirs.Itisoneofthosecasesinwhichnomancanmakeagreementforhisbrother.Ihavenoheartforcontinuingthisarticle,andifIhad,Ihavenothingofinteresttosay.Noone"sliterarycareercanhavebeensmootherormoreunchequeredthanmine.Ihavepublishedallmybooksatmyownexpense,andpaidfortheminduecourse.Whatcanbeconceivablymoreunromantic?ForsomeyearsIhadalittleliterarygrievanceagainsttheauthoritiesoftheBritishMuseumbecausetheywouldinsistonsayingintheircataloguethatIhadpublishedthreesermonsonInfidelityintheyear1820.IthoughtIhadnot,andgotthemouttosee.Theywereratherfunny,buttheywerenotmine.Now,however,thisgrievancehasbeenremoved.Ihadanotherlittlequarrelwiththembecausetheywoulddescribemeas"ofSt.John"sCollege,Cambridge,"anestablishmentforwhichIhavethemostprofoundveneration,butwithwhichIhavenothadthehonourtobeconnectedforsomequarterofacentury.AtlasttheysaidtheywouldchangethisdescriptionifIwouldonlytellthemwhatIwas,for,thoughtheyhaddonetheirbesttofindout,theyhadthemselvesfailed.IrepliedwithmodestpridethatIwasaBachelorofArts.Ikeepallmyotherlettersinsidemyname,notoutside.TheymusedandsaiditwasunfortunatethatIwasnotaMasterofArts.CouldInotgetmyselfmadeaMaster?IsaidIunderstoodthataMastershipwasanarticletheUniversitycouldnotdounderaboutfivepounds,andthatIwasnotdisposedtogosixpencehigherthanthreeten.Theyagainsaiditwasapity,foritwouldbeveryinconvenienttothemifIdidnotkeeptosomethingbetweenabishopandapoet.ImightbeanythingIlikedinreason,providedIshowedproperrespectforthealphabet;buttheyhadgotmebetween"SamuelButler,bishop,"and"SamuelButler,poet."Itwouldbeverytroublesometoshiftme,andbachelorcamebeforebishop.Thiswasreasonable,soIrepliedthat,underthosecircumstances,iftheypleased,IthoughtIwouldliketobeaphilosophicalwriter.Theyembracedthesolution,and,nomatterwhatIwritenow,ImustremainaphilosophicalwriteraslongasIlive,forthealphabetwillhardlybealteredinmytime,andImustbesomethingbetween"Bis"and"Poe."IfIcouldgetavolumeofmyexcellentnamesake"s"Hudibras"outofthelistofmyworks,I shouldberobbedofmylastshredofliterarygrievance,soIsaynothingaboutthis,butkeepitsecret,lestsomeworsethingshouldhappentome.Besides,Ihaveagreatrespectformynamesake,andalwayssaythatif"Erewhon"hadbeenaracehorseitwouldhavebeengotby"Hudibras"outof"Analogy."Someonesaidthistomemanyyearsago,andIfeltsomuchflatteredthatIhavebeenrepeatingtheremarkasmyowneversince.Buthowsmallarethesegrievancesascomparedwiththoseenduredwithoutamurmurbyhundredsofwritersfarmoredeservingthanmyself.WhenIseethescoresandhundredsofworkersinthereading-roomwhohavedonesomuchmorethanIhave,butwhoseworkisabsolutelyfruitlesstothemselves,andwhenIthinkofthepromptrecognitionobtainedbymyownwork,IaskmyselfwhatIhavedonetobethusrewarded.Ontheotherhand,thefeelingthatIhavesucceededfarbeyondmydesertshitherto,makesitalltheharderformetoacquiescewithoutcomplaintintheextinctionofacareerwhichIhonestlybelievetobeapromisingone;andoncemoreIrepeatthat,unlesstheMuseumauthoritiesgivemebackmyFrost,orputalockedclasponArvine,mycareermustbeextinguished.GivemebackFrost,and,iflifeandhealtharespared,IwillwriteanotherdozenofvolumesyetbeforeIhangupmyfiddle--ifsoseriousaconfusionofmetaphorsmaybepardoned.Iknowfromlongexperiencehowkindandconsiderateboththelateandpresentsuperintendentsofthereading-roomwereandare,butIdoubthowfareitherofthemwouldbedisposedtohelpmeonthisoccasion;continue,however,torobmeofmyFrost,and,whateverelseImaydo,Iwillwritenomorebooks.NotebyDr.Garnett,BritishMuseum.--Thefrosthasbrokenup.Mr.Butlerisrestoredtoliterature.Mr.Mudiemaymakehimselfeasy.Englandwillstillboastahumourist;andthelateMr.Darwin(towhoseposthumousmachinationstheremovalofthebookwasowing)willcontinuetobeconfounded.--R.GANNETT.RAMBLINGSINCHEAPSIDE{2}WalkingtheotherdayinCheapsideIsawsometurtlesinMr.Sweeting"swindow,andwastemptedtostayandlookatthem.AsIdidsoIwasstrucknotmorebythedefenceswithwhichtheywere hedgedabout,thanbythefatuousnessoftryingtohedgethatinatallwhich,ifhedgedthoroughly,mustdieofitsowndefencefulness.Theholesfortheheadandfeetthroughwhichtheturtleleaksout,asitwere,ontotheexteriorworld,andthroughwhichitagainabsorbstheexteriorworldintoitself--"catchingon"throughthemtothingsthatarethusbothturtleandnotturtleatoneandthesametime--theseholesstultifythearmour,andshowittohavebeendesignedbyacreaturewithmoreoffaithfulnesstoafixedidea,andhenceone-sidedness,thanofthatquicksenseofrelativeimportancesandtheirchanges,whichisthemainfactorofgoodliving.Theturtleobviouslyhadnosenseofproportion;itdifferedsowidelyfrommyselfthatIcouldnotcomprehendit;andasthiswordoccurredtome,itoccurredalsothatuntilmybodycomprehendeditsbodyinaphysicalmaterialsense,neitherwouldmymindbeabletocomprehenditsmindwithanythoroughness.Forunityofmindcanonlybeconsummatedbyunityofbody;everything,therefore,mustbeinsomerespectsbothknaveandfooltoallthatwhichhasnoteatenit,orbywhichithasnotbeeneaten.AslongastheturtlewasinthewindowandIinthestreetoutside,therewasnochanceofourcomprehendingoneanother.NeverthelessIknewthatIcouldgetittoagreewithmeifIcouldsoeffectuallybutton-holeandfastenontoitastoeatit.Mostmenhaveaneasymethodwithturtlesoup,andIhadnomisgivingbutthatifIcouldbringmyfirstpremisetobearIshouldprovethebetterreasoner.Mydifficultylayinthisinitialprocess,forIhadnotwithmetheargumentthatwouldalonecompelMr.SweetingthinkthatIoughttobeallowedtoconverttheturtles--ImeanIhadnomoneyinmypocket.Nomissionaryenterprisecanbecarriedonwithoutanymoneyatall,butevensosmallasumashalf-a-crownwould,Isuppose,haveenabledmetobringtheturtlepartlyround,andwithmanyhalf-crownsIcouldintimenodoubtconvertthelot,fortheturtleneedsmustgowherethemoneydrives.If,asisalleged,theworldstandsonaturtle,theturtlestandsonmoney.Nomoneynoturtle.Asformoney,thatstandsonopinion,credit,trust,faith--thingsthat,thoughhighlymaterialinconnectionwithmoney,arestillofimmaterialessence.Thestepsareperfectlyplain.Themenwhocaughttheturtlesbroughtafairlystronganddefiniteopiniontobearuponthem,thatpassedintoaction,andlateronintomoney.Theythoughttheturtleswouldcomethatway,andverifiedtheiropinion;onthis, willandactionweregenerated,withtheresultthatthementurnedtheturtlesontheirbacksandcarriedthemoff.Mr.Sweetingtouchedthesemenwithmoney,whichistheoutwardandvisiblesignofverifiedopinion.ThecustomertouchesMr.Sweetingwithmoney,Mr.Sweetingtouchesthewaiterandthecookwithmoney.Theytouchtheturtlewithskillandverifiedopinion.Finally,thecustomerappliestheclinchingargumentthatbrushesallsophismsaside,andbidstheturtlestandprotoplasmtoprotoplasmwithhimself,toknowevenasitisknown.Butitmustbealltouch,touch,touch;skill,opinion,power,andmoney,passinginandoutwithoneanotherinanyorderwelike,butstilllinktolinkandtouchtotouch.Ifthereisfailureanywhereinrespectofopinion,skill,power,ormoney,eitherasregardsquantityorquality,thechaincanbenostrongerthanitsweakestlink,andtheturtleandtheclinchingargumentwillflyasunder.Ofcourse,ifthereisaninitialfailureinconnection,throughdefectinanymemberofthechain,orofconnectionbetweenthelinks,itwillnomorebeattemptedtobringtheturtleandtheclinchingargumenttogether,thanitwilltochainupadogwithtwopiecesofbrokenchainthataredisconnected.Thecontactthroughoutmustbeconceivedasabsolute;andyetperfectcontactisinconceivablebyus,foronbecomingperfectitceasestobecontact,andbecomesessential,onceforallinseverable,identity.Themostabsolutecontactshortofthisisstillcontactbycourtesyonly.Sohere,aseverywhereelse,Eurydiceglidesoffasweareabouttograspher.Wecanseenothingfacetoface;ourutmostseeingisbutafumblingofblindfinger-endsinanovercrowdedpocket.Presentlymyownblindfinger-endsfisheduptheconclusion,thatasIhadneithertimenormoneytospendonperfectingthechainthatwouldputmeinfullspiritualcontactwithMr.Sweeting"sturtles,Ihadbetterleavethemtocompletetheireducationatsomeoneelse"sexpenseratherthanmine,soIwalkedontowardstheBank.AsIdidsoitstruckmehowcontinuallywearemetbythismeltingofoneexistenceintoanother.Thelimitsofthebodyseemwelldefinedenoughasdefinitionsgo,butdefinitionsseldomgofar.What,forexample,canseemmoredistinctfromamanthanhisbankerorhissolicitor?Yetthesearecommonlysomuchpartsofhimthathecannomorecutthemoffandgrownewones,thanhecangrownewlegsorarms;neithermusthewoundhissolicitor;awoundinthesolicitorisaveryseriousthing.Asforhisbank--failureofhisbank"sactionmaybeasfataltoamanasfailureofhisheart.I havesaidnothingaboutthemedicalorspiritualadviser,butmostmengrowintothesocietythatsurroundsthembythehelpofthesefourmaintap-roots,andnotonlyintotheworldofhumanity,butintotheuniverseatlarge.Wecan,indeed,growbutchers,bakers,andgreengrocers,almostadlibitum,butthesearelowdevelopments,andcorrespondtoskin,hair,orfinger-nails.Thoseofusagainwhoarenothighlyenoughorganisedtohavegrownasolicitororbankercangenerallyrepairthelossofwhateversocialorganisationtheymaypossessasfreelyaslizardsaresaidtogrownewtails;butthiswiththehighersocial,aswellasorganic,developmentsisonlypossibletoaverylimitedextent.Thedoctrineofmetempsychosis,ortransmigrationofsouls--adoctrinetowhichtheforegoingconsiderationsareforthemostparteasycorollaries--cropsupnomatterinwhatdirectionweallowourthoughtstowander.Andwemeetinstancesoftransmigrationofbodyaswellasofsoul.Idonotmeanthatbothbodyandsoulhavetransmigratedtogether,farfromit;butthat,aswecanoftenrecogniseatransmigratedmindinanalienbody,sowenotlessoftenseeabodythatisclearlyonlyatransmigration,linkedontosomeoneelse"snewandaliensoul.Wemeetpeopleeverydaywhosebodiesareevidentlythoseofmenandwomenlongdead,butwhoseappearanceweknowthroughtheirportraits.Weseethemgoingaboutinomnibuses,railwaycarriages,andinallpublicplaces.Thecardshavebeenshuffled,andtheyhavedrawnfreshlotsinlifeandnationalities,butanyonefairlywellupinmediaevalandlastcenturyportraitureknowsthemataglance.GoingdownoncetowardsItalyIsawayoungmaninthetrainwhomIrecognised,onlyheseemedtohavegotyounger.Hewaswithafriend,andhisfacewasincontinualplay,butforsomelittletimeIpuzzledinvaintorecollectwhereitwasthatIhadseenhimbefore.AllofasuddenIrememberedhewasKingFrancisI.ofFrance.Ihadhithertothoughtthefaceofthiskingimpossible,butwhenIsawitinplayIunderstoodit.HisgreatcontemporaryHenryVIII.keepsarestaurantinOxfordStreet.FalstaffdroveoneoftheSt.Gotharddiligencesformanyyears,andonlyretiredwhentherailwaywasopened.TitianoncemademeapairofbootsatVicenza,andnotverygoodones.AtModenaIhadmyhaircutbyayoungmanwhomIperceivedtobeRaffaelle.ThemodelwhosattohimforhiscelebratedMadonnasisfirstladyinaconfectioneryestablishmentatMontreal.Shehasalittlemotherlypimpleontheleftsideofhernosethatismisleadingatfirst,butonexaminationsheisreadilyrecognised;probablyRaffaelle"smodel hadthepimpletoo,butRaffaelleleftitout--ashewould.Handel,ofcourse,isMadamePatey.GiveMadamePateyHandel"swigandclothes,andtherewouldbenotellingherfromHandel.Itisnotonlythatthefeaturesandtheshapeoftheheadarethesame,butthereisacertainimperiousnessofexpressionandattitudeaboutHandelwhichhehardlyattemptstoconcealinMadamePatey.Itisacuriouscoincidencethatheshouldcontinuetobesuchanincomparablerendererofhisownmusic.PopeJuliusII.wasthelateMr.Darwin.RamesesII.isablindwomannow,andstandsinHolborn,holdingatinmug.InevercouldunderstandwhyIalwaysfoundmyselfhumming"Theyoppressedthemwithburthens"whenIpassedher,tillonedayIwaslookinginMr.Spooner"swindowintheStrand,andsawaphotographofRamesesII.MaryQueenofScotswearssurgicalbootsandissubjecttofits,neartheHorseShoeinTottenhamCourtRoad.MichaelAngeloisacommissionaire;IsawhimonboardtheGlenRosa,whichusedtoruneverydayfromLondontoClacton-on-Seaandback.ItgavemequiteaturnwhenIsawhimcomingdownthestairsfromtheupperdeck,withhisbronzedface,flattenednose,andwiththefamiliarbaruponhisforehead.IneverlikedMichaelAngelo,andnevershall,butIamafraidofhim,andwasneartryingtohidewhenIsawhimcomingtowardsme.Hehadnotgothiscommissionaire"suniformon,andIdidnotknowhewasonetillImethimamonthorsolaterintheStrand.WhenwegottoBlackwallthemusicstruckupandpeoplebegantodance.Ineversawamandancesomuchinmylife.HedidnotmissadanceallthewaytoClacton,norallthewaybackagain,andwhennotdancinghewasflirtingandcrackingjokes.IcouldhardlybelievemyeyeswhenIreflectedthatthismanhadpaintedthefamous"LastJudgment,"andhadmadeallthosestatues.Danteis,orwasayearortwoago,awaiteratBrissagoontheLagoMaggiore,onlyheisbetter-tempered-looking,andhasamoreintellectualexpression.Hegavemehisideasuponbeauty:"Tuttoch"everoebello,"heexclaimed,withallhisoldself-confidence.IamnotafraidofDante.Iknowpeoplebytheirfriends,andhewentaboutwithVirgil,soIsaidwithsomeseverity,"No,Dante,ilnasodellaSignoraRobinsonevero,manonebello";andheadmittedIwasright.Beatrice"snameisTowler;sheiswaitressatasmallinninGermanSwitzerland.Iusedtositatmywindowandhearpeoplecall"Towler,Towler,Towler,"fiftytimesinaforenoon.ShewastheexactantithesistoAbra;Abra,ifIremember,usedto comebeforetheycalledhername,butnomatterhowoftentheycalledTowler,everyonecamebeforeshedid.IsupposetheyspelthernameTaula,buttomeitsoundedTowler;Inever,however,metanyoneelsewiththisname.Shewasasweet,artlesslittlehussy,whomademeplaythepianotoher,andshesaiditwaslovely.OfcourseIonlyplayedmyowncompositions;soIbelievedher,anditallwentoffverynicely.IthoughtitmightsavetroubleifIdidnottellherwhoshereallywas,soIsaidnothingaboutit.ImetSocratesonce.HewasmymuleteeronanexcursionwhichIwillnotname,forfearitshouldidentifytheman.ThemomentIsawmyguideIknewhewassomebody,butforthelifeofmeIcouldnotrememberwho.AllofasuddenitflashedacrossmethathewasSocrates.Hetalkedenoughforsix,butitwasallindialetto,soIcouldnotunderstandhim,nor,whenIhaddiscoveredwhohewas,didImuchtrytodoso.Hewasagoodcreature,atriflegiventostealingfruitandvegetables,butanamiablemanenough.Hehadhadalongdaywithhismuleandme,andheonlyaskedmefivefrancs.Igavehimten,forIpitiedhispooroldpatchedboots,andtherewasameeknessabouthimthattouchedme."Andnow,Socrates,"saidIatparting,"wegoonourseveralways,youtostealtomatoes,Itofilchideasfromotherpeople;fortherest--whichofthesetworoadswillbethebettergoing,ourfatherwhichisinheavenknows,butweknownot."IhaveneverseenMendelssohn,butthereisafrescoofhimontheterrace,oropen-airdining-room,ofaninnatChiavenna.HeisnotcalledMendelssohn,butIknewhimbyhislegs.Heisinthecostumeofadandyofsomefive-and-fortyyearsago,issmokingacigar,andappearstobemakinganofferofmarriagetohiscook.BeethovenbothmyfriendMr.H.FestingJonesandIhavehadthegoodfortunetomeet;heisanengineernow,anddoesnotknowonenotefromanother;hehasquitelosthisdeafness,ismarried,andis,ofcourse,alittlesquatmanwiththesamerefractoryhairthathealwayshad.Itwasveryinterestingtowatchhim,andJonesremarkedthatbeforetheendofdinnerhehadbecomepositivelyposthumous.OnemorningIwastoldtheBeethovensweregoingaway,andbeforelongImettheirtwoheavyboxesbeingcarrieddownthestairs.Theboxesweresosquabandliketheirowners,thatIhalfthoughtforamomentthattheywereinside,andshouldhardlyhavebeensurprisedtoseethemspringuplikeacoupleofJacks-in-the-box."Sonoindentro?"saidI,withafrownofwonder,pointingtotheboxes.TheportersknewwhatImeant,andlaughed.ButthereisnoendtothelistofpeoplewhomIhavebeenabletorecognise, andbeforeIhadgotthroughitmyself,IfoundIhadwalkedsomedistance,andhadinvoluntarilypausedinfrontofasecond-handbookstall.Idonotlikebooks.IbelieveIhavethesmallestlibraryofanyliterarymaninLondon,andIhavenowishtoincreaseit.IkeepmybooksattheBritishMuseumandatMudie"s,anditmakesmeveryangryifanyonegivesmeoneformyprivatelibrary.Ionceheardtwoladiesdisputinginarailwaycarriageastowhetheroneofthemhadorhadnotbeenwastingmoney."Ispentitinbooks,"saidtheaccused,"andit"snotwastingmoneytobuybooks.""Indeed,mydear,Ithinkitis,"wastherejoinder,andinpracticeIagreewithit.Webster"sDictionary,Whitaker"sAlmanack,andBradshaw"sRailwayGuideshouldbesufficientforanyordinarylibrary;itwillbetimeenoughtogobeyondthesewhenthemassofusefulandentertainingmatterwhichtheyprovidehasbeenmastered.Nevertheless,Iadmitthatsometimes,ifnotparticularlybusy,Istopatasecond-handbookstallandturnoverabookortwofrommereforceofhabit.IknownotwhatmademepickupacopyofAEschylus--ofcourseinanEnglishversion--orratherIknownotwhatmadeAEschylustakeupwithme,forhetookmeratherthanIhim;butnosoonerhadhegotmethanhebeganpuzzlingme,ashehasdoneanytimethisfortyyears,toknowwhereinhistranscendentmeritcanbesupposedtolie.Tomeheis,likethegreaternumberofclassicsinallagesandcountries,aliteraryStruldbrug,ratherthanatrueambrosia-fedimmortal.Therearetrueimmortals,buttheyarefewandfarbetween;mostclassicsareasgreatimpostorsdeadastheywerewhenliving,andwhileposingasgodsare,five-seventhsofthem,onlyStruldbrugs.ItcomfortsmetorememberthatAristophaneslikedAEschylusnobetterthanIdo.True,hepraiseshimbycomparisonwithSophoclesandEuripides,butheonlydoessothathemayrundowntheselastmoreeffectively.Aristophanesisasafemantofollow,nordoIseewhyitshouldnotbeascorrecttolaughwithhimastopullalongfacewiththeGreekProfessors;butthisisneitherherenorthere,fornoonereallycaresaboutAEschylus;themoreinterestingquestionishowhecontrivedtomakesomanypeopleforsomanyyearspretendtocareabouthim.Perhapshemarriedsomebody"sdaughter.Ifamanwouldgetholdofthepublicear,hemustpay,marry,orfight.IhaveneverunderstoodthatAEschyluswasamanofmeans,andthefightersdonotwritepoetry,soIsupposehemusthavemarriedatheatrical manager"sdaughter,andgothisplaysbroughtoutthatway.Theearofanyageorcountryislikeitsland,air,andwater;itseemslimitlessbutisreallylimited,andisalreadyinthekeepingofthosewhonaturallyenoughwillhavenosquattingonsuchvaluableproperty.Itiswrittenandtalkeduptoascloselyasthemeansofsubsistencearebreduptobyateemingpopulation.Thereisnotasquareinchofitbutisinprivatehands,andhewhowouldfreeholdanypartofitmustdosobypurchase,marriage,orfighting,intheusualway--andfightinggivesthelongest,safesttenure.Thepublicitselfhashardlymorevoiceinthequestionwhoshallhaveitsear,thanthelandhasinchoosingitsowners.Itisfarmedasthosewhoownitthinkmostprofitabletothemselves,andsmallblametothem;nevertheless,ithasaresiduumofmulishnesswhichthelandhasnot,anddoessometimesdispossessitstenants.Itisinthisresiduumthatthosewhofightplacetheirhopeandtrust.OrperhapsAEschylussquaredtheleadingcriticsofhistime.Whenonecomestothinkofit,hemusthavedoneso,forhowisitconceivablethatsuchplaysshouldhavehadsuchrunsifhehadnot?ImetaladyoneyearinSwitzerlandwhohadsomeparrotsthatalwaystravelledwithherandweretheidolsofherlife.Theseparrotswouldnotletanyonereadaloudintheirpresence,unlesstheyheardtheirownnamesintroducedfromtimetotime.Ifthesewerefreelyinterpolatedintothetexttheywouldremainasstillasstones,fortheythoughtthereadingwasaboutthemselves.Ifitwasnotaboutthemitcouldnotbeallowed.Theleadersofliteratureareliketheseparrots;theydonotlookatwhatamanwrites,noriftheydidwouldtheyunderstanditmuchbetterthantheparrotsdo;buttheylikethesoundoftheirownnames,andifthesearefreelyinterpolatedinatonetheytakeasfriendly,theymayevengiveeartoanoutsider.Otherwisetheywillscreamhimoffiftheycan.Ishouldnotadviseanyonewithordinaryindependenceofmindtoattemptthepublicearunlessheisconfidentthathecanout-lungandout-lasthisowngeneration;forifhehasanyforce,peoplewillandoughttobeontheirguardagainsthim,inasmuchasthereisnoknowingwherehemaynottakethem.Besides,theyhavestakedtheirmoneyonthewrongmensooftenwithoutsuspectingit,thatwhentherecomesonewhomtheydosuspectitwouldbemadnessnottobetagainsthim.True,hemaydiebeforehehasout-screamedhisopponents,butthathasnothingtodowithit.Ifhisscreamwaswellpitcheditwillsoundclearerwhenheisdead.Wedonotknowwhatdeathis.Ifweknowsolittleaboutlifewhichwehave experienced,howshallweknowaboutdeathwhichwehavenot--andinthenatureofthingsnevercan?Everyone,asIsaidyearsagoin"AlpsandSanctuaries,"isanimmortaltohimself,forhecannotknowthatheisdeaduntilheisdead,andwhendeadhowcanheknowanythingaboutanything?Allweknowis,thateventhehumblestdeadmaylivelongafteralltraceofthebodyhasdisappeared;weseethemdoingitinthebodiesandmemoriesofthosethatcomeafterthem;andnotafewlivesomuchlongerandmoreeffectuallythanisdesirable,thatithasbeennecessarytogetridofthembyActofParliament.Itislovethatalonegiveslife,andthetruestlifeisthatwhichwelivenotinourselvesbutvicariouslyinothers,andwithwhichwehavenoconcern.Ourconcernissotoorderourselvesthatwemaybeofthenumberofthemthatenterintolife--althoughweknowitnot.AEschylusdidsoorderhimself;buthislifeisnotofthatinspiritingkindthatcanbewonthroughfightingthegoodfightonly--orbeingbelievedtohavefoughtit.Hisvoiceistheechoofadrone,drone-begottenanddrone-sustained.Itisnotatonethatamanmustutterordie--nay,eventhoughhedie;andlikelyenoughhalftheallusionsandhardpassagesinAEschylusofwhichwecanmakeneitherheadnortailareinrealityonlypuffsofsomeoftheliteraryleadersofhistime.Theladyabovereferredtotoldmemoreaboutherparrots.ShewaslikeaNasmyth"shammergoingslow--verygentle,butirresistible.Shealwaysreadthenewspapertothem.Whatwastheuseofhavinganewspaperifonedidnotreadittoone"sparrots?"Andhaveyoudivined,"Iasked,"towhichsidetheyinclineinpolitics?""TheydonotlikeMr.Gladstone,"wasthesomewhatfreezinganswer;"thisistheonlypointonwhichwedisagree,forIadorehim.Don"taskmoreaboutthis,itisagreatgrieftome.Itellthemeverything,"shecontinued,"andhidenosecretfromthem.""Butcananyparrotbetrustedtokeepasecret?""Minecan.""AndonSundaysdoyougivethemthesamecourseofreadingasonaweek-day,ordoyoumakeadifference?" "OnSundaysIalwaysreadthemagenealogicalchapterfromtheOldorNewTestament,forIcanthusintroducetheirnameswithoutprofanity.Ialwayskeepteabymeincasetheyshouldaskforitinthenight,andIhaveanEtnatowarmitforthem;theytakemilkandsugar.Theoldwhite-headedclergymancametoseethemlastnight;itwasverypainful,forJockoremindedhimsostronglyofhislate..."Ithoughtshewasgoingtosay"wife,"butitprovedtohavebeenonlyofaparrotthathehadonceknownandloved.Oneeveningshewasindifficultiesaboutthequarantine,whichwasenforcedthatyearontheItalianfrontier.ThelocaldoctorhadgonedownthatmorningtoseetheItaliandoctorandarrangesomedetails."Then,perhaps,mydear,"shesaidtoherhusband,"heisthequarantine.""No,mylove,"repliedherhusband."Thequarantineisnotaperson,itisaplacewheretheyputpeople";butshewouldnotbecomforted,andsuspectedthequarantineasanenemythatmightatanymomentpounceoutuponherandherparrots.Soaladytoldmeoncethatshehadbeeninliketroubleabouttheanthem.Shereadinherprayer-bookthatinchoirsandplaceswheretheysing"herefolloweththeanthem,"yetthepersonwiththismostmysteriouslysoundingnameneverdidfollow.Theyhadachoir,andnoonecouldsaythechurchwasnotaplacewheretheysang,fortheydidsing--bothchantsandhymns.Why,then,thispersistentslacknessonthepartoftheanthem,whoatthisjunctureshouldfollowherpapa,therector,intothereading-desk?Nodoubthewouldcomesomeday,andthenwhatwouldhebelike?Fairordark?Tallorshort?Wouldhebebaldandwearspectacleslikepapa,orwouldhebeyoungandgood-looking?Anyhow,therewassomethingwrong,foritwasannouncedthathewouldfollow,andheneverdidfollow;thereforetherewasnoknowingwhathemightnotdonext.IheardoftheparrotsayearortwolaterasgivinglessonsinItaliantoanEnglishmaid.Idonotknowwhattheirtermswere.Alas!sincethenboththeyandtheirmistresshavejoinedthemajority.Whenthepoorladyfeltherendwasnearshedesired(andtheresponsibilityforthismustrestwithher,notme)thatthebirdsmightbedestroyed,asfearingthattheymightcometobeneglected,andknowingthattheycouldneverbelovedagainasshehadlovedthem.Onbeingtoldthatallwasover,shesaid,"Thankyou,"andimmediatelyexpired.Reflectinginsuchrandomfashion,andstrollingwithnogreater method,IworkedmywaybackthroughCheapsideandfoundmyselfoncemoreinfrontofSweeting"swindow.Againtheturtlesattractedme.Theywerealive,andsofaratanyratetheyagreedwithme.Nay,theyhadeyes,mouths,legs,ifnotarms,andfeet,sotherewasmuchinwhichwewerebothofamind,butsurelytheymustbemistakeninarmingthemselvessoveryheavily.Anycreatureongettingwhattheturtleaimedatwouldoverreachitselfandbelandednotinsafetybutannihilation.Itshouldhavenocommunionwiththeoutsideworldatall,fordeathcouldcreepinwhereverthecreaturecouldcreepout;anditmustcreepoutsomewhereifitwastohookontooutsidethings.Whatdeathcanbemoreabsolutethansuchabsoluteisolation?Perfectdeath,indeed,ifitwereattainable(whichitisnot),isasnearperfectsecurityaswecanreach,butitisnotthekindofsecurityaimedatbyanyanimalthatisatthepainsofdefendingitself.Forsuchwanttohavethingsbothways,desiringthelivingnessoflifewithoutitsperils,andthesafetyofdeathwithoutitsdeadness,andsomeofusdoactuallygetthisforaconsiderabletime,butwedonotgetitbyplatingourselveswitharmourastheturtledoes.WetriedthisintheMiddleAges,andnolongermockourselveswiththeweightofarmourthatourforefatherscarriedinbattle.Indeedthemoredeadlytheweaponsofattackbecomethemorewegointothefightslug-wise.Slugshaveriddentheircontemptfordefensivearmourasmuchtodeathastheturtlestheirpursuitofit.Theyhavehardlymorethanskinenoughtoholdthemselvestogether;theycourtdeatheverytimetheycrosstheroad.Yetdeathcomesnottothemmorethantotheturtle,whosedefencesaresogreatthatthereislittleleftinsidetobedefended.Moreover,theslugsfarebestinthelongrun,forturtlesaredyingout,whileslugsarenot,andtheremustbemillionsofslugsalltheworldoverforeverysingleturtle.Ofthetwovanities,therefore,thatoftheslugseemsmostsubstantial.Ineithercasethecreaturethinksitselfsafe,butissuretobefoundoutsoonerorlater;norisiteasytoexplainthismockerysavebyreflectingthateverythingmusthaveitsmeatindueseason,andthatmeatcanonlybefoundforsuchamultitudeofmouthsbygivingeverythingasmeatindueseasontosomethingelse.ThisisliketheKilkennycats,orrobbingPetertopayPaul;butitisthewayoftheworld,andaseveryanimalmustcontributeinkindtothepicnicoftheuniverse,onedoesnotseewhatbetterarrangementcouldbemadethantheprovidingeachracewithahereditary fallacy,whichshallintheendgetitintoascrape,butwhichshallgenerallystandthewearandtearoflifeforsometime."Doutdes"isthewritingonallfleshtohimthateatsit;andnocreatureisdearertoitselfthanitistosomeotherthatwoulddevourit.Noristhereanystatementorpropositionmoreinvulnerablethanlivingformsare.Propositionspreyuponandaregroundedupononeanotherjustlikelivingforms.Theysupportoneanotherasplantsandanimalsdo;theyarebasedultimatelyoncredit,orfaith,ratherthanthecashofirrefragableconviction.Thewholeuniverseiscarriedononthecreditsystem,andifthemutualconfidenceonwhichitisbasedweretocollapse,itmustitselfcollapseimmediately.Justorunjust,itlivesbyfaith;itisbasedonvagueandimpalpableopinionthatbysomeinscrutableprocesspassesintowillandaction,andismademanifestinmatterandinflesh:itismeteoric--suspendedinmidair;itisthebaselessfabricofavisionsovast,sovivid,andsogorgeousthatnobasecanseemmorebroadthansuchstupendousbaselessness,andyetanymancanbringitabouthisearsbybeingover-curious;whenfaithfailsasystembasedonfaithfailsalso.Whethertheuniverseisreallyapayingconcern,orwhetheritisaninflatedbubblethatmustburstsoonerorlater,thisisanothermatter.Ifpeopleweretodemandcashpaymentinirrefragablecertaintyforeverythingthattheyhavetakenhithertoaspapermoneyonthecreditofthebankofpublicopinion,istheremoneyenoughbehinditalltostandsogreatadrainevenonsogreatareserve?Probablythereisnot,buthappilytherecanbenosuchpanic,foreventhoughtheculturedclassesmaydoso,theunculturedaretoodulltohavebrainsenoughtocommitsuchstupendousfolly.Ittakesalongcourseofacademictrainingtoeducateamanuptothestandardwhichhemustreachbeforehecanentertainsuchquestionsseriously,andbyamercifuldispensationofProvidence,universitytrainingisalmostascostlyasitisunprofitable.Themajoritywillthusbealwaysunabletoaffordit,andwillbasetheiropinionsonmotherwitandcurrentopinionratherthanondemonstration.SoIturnedmystepshomewards;Isawagoodmanymorethingsonmywayhome,butIwastoldthatIwasnottoseemorethistimethanIcouldgetintotwelvepagesoftheUniversalReview;ImustthereforereserveanyremarkwhichIthinkmightperhapsentertainthereaderforanotheroccasion. THEAUNT,THENIECES,ANDTHEDOG{3}Whenathingisold,broken,anduselesswethrowitonthedust-heap,butwhenitissufficientlyold,sufficientlybroken,andsufficientlyuselesswegivemoneyforit,putitintoamuseum,andreadpapersoveritwhichpeoplecomelongdistancestohear.By-and-by,whenthewhirligigoftimehasbroughtonanotherrevenge,themuseumitselfbecomesadust-heap,andremainssotillafterlongagesitisre-discovered,andvaluedasbelongingtoaneo-rubbishage--containing,perhaps,tracesofastillolderpaleo-rubbishcivilisation.Sowhenpeopleareold,indigent,andinallrespectsincapable,weholdthemingreaterandgreatercontemptastheirpovertyandimpotenceincrease,tilltheyreachthepitchwhentheyareactuallyatthepointtodie,whereontheybecomesublime.Thenweplaceeveryresourceourhospitalscancommandattheirdisposal,andshownostintinourconsiderationforthem.Itisthesamewithallourinterests.Wecaremostaboutextremesofimportanceandofunimportance;butextremesofimportancearetaintedwithfear,andaveryimperfectfearcastethoutlove.Extremesofunimportancecannothurtus,thereforewearewelldisposedtowardsthem;themeansmaycometodoso,thereforewedonotlovethem.Hencewepickaflyoutofamilk-jugandwatchwithpleasureoveritsrecovery,forweareconfidentthatundernoconceivablecircumstanceswillitwanttoborrowmoneyfromus;butwefeellesssureaboutamouse,soweshowitnoquarter.Thecompilersofouralmanacswellknowthistendencyofournatures,sotheytellus,notwhenNoahwentintotheark,norwhenthetempleofJerusalemwasdedicated,butthatLindleyMurray,grammarian,diedJanuary16,1826.Thisisnotbecausetheycouldnotfindsomanyasthreehundredandsixty-fiveeventsofconsiderableinterestsincethecreationoftheworld,butbecausetheywellknowwewouldratherhearofsomethinglessinteresting.Wecaremostaboutwhatconcernsuseitherveryclosely,orsolittlethatpracticallywehavenothingwhatevertodowithit.IonceaskedayoungItalian,whoprofessedtohaveaconsiderableknowledgeofEnglishliterature,whichofallourpoemspleasedhimbest.Herepliedwithoutamoment"shesitation:- "Heydiddlediddle,thecatandthefiddle,Thecowjumpedoverthemoon;Thelittledoglaughedtoseesuchsport,Andthedishranawaywiththespoon."HesaidthiswasbetterthananythinginItalian.TheyhadDanteandTasso,andeversomanymoregreatpoets,buttheyhadnothingcomparableto"Heydiddlediddle,"norhadhebeenabletoconceivehowanyonecouldhavewrittenit.DidIknowtheauthor"sname,andhadwegivenhimastatue?OnthisItoldhimoftheyoungladyofHarrowwhowouldgotochurchinabarrow,andpliedhimwithwhateverrhymingnonsenseIcouldcalltomind,butitwasnouse;allofthesethingshadanelementofrealitythatrobbedthemofhalftheircharm,whereas"Heydiddlediddle"hadnothinginitthatcouldconceivablyconcernhim.Soagainitiswiththethingsthatgallusmost.Whatisitthatrisesupagainstusatoddtimesandsmitesusinthefaceagainandagainforyearsafterithashappened?Thatwespentallthebestyearsofourlifeinlearningwhatwehavefoundtobeaswindle,andtohavebeenknowntobeaswindlebythosewhotookmoneyformisleadingus?Thatthoseonwhomwemostleanedmostbetrayedus?Thatwehaveonlycometofeelourstrengthwhenthereislittlestrengthleftofanykindtofeel?Thesethingswillhardlymuchdisturbamanofordinarygoodtemper.Butthatheshouldhavesaidthisorthatlittleunkindandwantonsaying;thatheshouldhavegoneawayfromthisorthathotelandgivenashillingtoolittletothewaiter;thathisclotheswereshabbyatsuchorsuchagarden-party--thesethingsgallusasacornwillsometimesdo,thoughthelossofalimbwaynotbeseriouslyfelt.Ihavebeenremindedlatelyoftheseconsiderationswithmorethancommonforcebyreadingtheveryvoluminouscorrespondenceleftbymygrandfather,Dr.Butler,ofShrewsbury,whosememoirsIamengagedinwriting.Ihavefoundalargenumberofinterestinglettersonsubjectsofseriousimport,butmustconfessthatitistothehardlylessnumerouslighterlettersthatIhavebeenmostattracted,nordoIfeelsurethatmyeminentnamesakedidnotsharemypredilection.AmongotherlettersinmypossessionIhaveonebundlethathasbeenkeptapart,andhasevidentlynoconnectionwithDr.Butler"sownlife.Icannotusetheseletters,therefore, formybook,butoverandabovethecharmoftheirinspiredspelling,IfindthemofsuchanextremelytrivialnaturethatIinclinetohopethereadermayderiveasmuchamusementfromthemasIhavedonemyself,andventuretogivethemthepublicityherewhichImustrefusetheminmybook.Thedatesandsignatureshave,withtheexceptionofMrs.Newton"s,beencarefullyerased,butIhavecollectedthattheywerewrittenbythetwoservantsofasingleladywhoresidedatnogreatdistancefromLondon,totwoniecesofthesaidladywholivedinLondonitself.Theauntneverwrites,butalwaysgetsoneoftheservantstodosoforher.Sheappearseitheras"youraunt"oras"She";hernameisnotgiven,butsheisevidentlylookeduponwithagooddealofawebyallwhohadtodowithher.ThelettersalmostallofthemrelatetovisitseitheroftheaunttoLondon,oroftheniecestotheaunt"shome,which,fromoccasionalallusionstohopping,IgathertohavebeeninKent,Sussex,orSurrey.Ihavearrangedthemtothebestofmypower,andtakethefollowingtobetheearliest.Ithasnosignature,butisnotinthehandwritingoftheservantwhostylesherselfElizabeth,orMrs.Newton.Itruns:-"MADAM,--YourAuntWishesmetoinformyoushewillbegladifyouwilllethirknowifyouthinkofcomingTohirHousethissmonthorNextasshecannothaveyouinSeptemberonakountoftheHopingIfyouarcomingshethinkesshehadbatterGotoLondonontheDayyoucomtohirHousethesaysyoushallhaveeverryThingraddyforyouathirHouseandMrs.NewtontomeetyouandstaywithyoutillShereturnesagann."ifyouarnotComingthissSummerShewillbeinLondonbeforethissMonthisoutandwillSleepontheSofyAsShewillnotbeinLondonmorethanntwonits.andSheSaysshewillnottrubleyouonannyakountasSheWillreturnetheSameDaybeforeShewillplageyouannymore.butShethanksyouforaskinghirtoLondon.butShesaysShecannotlevethehouseatprassantShesayhirSurvantsartodoforyouasshecannotlodgeyoursnorshewillnothavethiminatthehouseannymoretobrakeanddestroyhirthinksandbeslivehirandmakeupLiesbyhirandSkandelasyourtoodidShesaysshemenstopayfore2Nitsandoneday,ShesaysthePepelwilllethirhaveitifyouaskthimtolethir:youWillbesogoodastolethirknowsun:wishSheistodo,asShesaysShedosnotcareannythingaboutit.whichwaytisssheisbatterthanShewasand desirshirLovetobouthbouth."YourauntwisestoknowhowthesilkClocksarmadup[howthesilkcloaksaremadeup]withaCapeorawoodassheisagointohaveonemadeuptorideoutininhirlittelshas[chaise]."Charlesisabuttyandsogood."Mr&MrsNewtonarquitewall&desirestoberememberedtoyou."Icanthrownolightonthemeaningoftheverbto"beslive."EachletterintheMS.issoadmirablyformedthattherecanbenoquestionaboutthewordbeingasIhavegivenit.NorhaveIbeenabletodiscoverwhatisreferredtobythewords"Charlesisabuttyandsogood."WeshallpresentlymeetwithaCharleswho"fliesintheFier,"butthatCharlesappearstohavebeeninLondon,whereasthisoneisevidentlyinKent,orwherevertheauntlived.ThenextletterisfromMrs.Newton"DERMiss--,IReceveyourLetteryourAuntisvaryIllandLowspiretedIDontethinkyourAuntwoodGitupallDayifMySisterWasnottoPersageherWeallThinkhirlifistwomonopolous.youWishtoknowWhoWasLiveingWithyourAunt.thatisMySisterandWillian--andCariline--asCockandOldPollPepperisCometoStayWithheraLittelWileandIhoped[hopped]forYourAunt,andHarryhasWorkedforyourAuntalltheSummer.YourAuntandHarryWhenttotheWellsRacesandSpentaveryPleasantDayyourAunthasLostOldFanneySowSheDiedaboutaWeekaGoHarryheWantedyourAunttohaveherkilledandsendhertoLondonandSheeWoldFechher11poundstheFarmershaveLostaGreetDealofCattelsuchasHogsandCowsWhattheaycallthePlageIWhenttoyourAuntasyouWishMeetoDoButSheToldMeeSheDidnotwontaneyBoddySheToldMeeSheShouldLiketoComeuptoseeyouButSheCantComeknowforsheisBoddyleyillandHarryDonteWorkthereknowButheGoupthereOnceinTwoorThreeDayHarryOfferedisselftoGouptoLiveWithyourAuntButSheMadehimknowAncer.IhayBeenuptoyourAuntatWorkfor5WeeksHoppingandRaglutingYourAuntDonteEatnorDrinkButvaryLittelindeed."IamHappytoSayWeareBothQuiteWellandIamGladnohearyou areBothQuiteWell"MRSNEWTON."Thisseemstohavemadetheniecesproposetopayavisittotheiraunt,perhapstotryandrelievethemonopolyofherexistenceandcheerherupalittle.Intheirletter,doubtless,thedogmotiveisintroducedthatissofinelydevelopedpresentlybyMrs.Newton.Ishouldliketohavebeenabletogivethethemeasenouncedbytheniecesthemselves,buttheirlettersarenotbeforeme.Mrs.Newtonwrites:-"MYDEARGIRLS,--YourAuntreceivyourLetteryourAuntwillBevarygladtoseeyouasitquiteagreeableifittistoyouandSheeisQuiteWillingtoEairthebedsandtheRoomsifyouLiketoTrusttohirandtheServantes;ifnotImayGoupthereasyouWish.MySisterSleepsintheBestRoomassheallwaysDidandtheCoockinthegarretandyouCanhavetheRoomsthesameasyouallwaysDidasyourAuntDontesetintheParlourSheContinlerySetsintheCiching.yourAuntsayssheCannotPartfromthedogknowhowsandSheSayshewillnothurtyouforheisLikeaChildandIcansafeleysayMySelfhewontehurtyouasSheCannotSleepintheRoomWithouthimasheallWaySleepintheSameRoomasSheDose.yourAuntisagreeabletoGitinWhatColesandWoodyouWishforIamknowhappytosayyourAuntisinasGoodhealthaseverSheWasandSheishappytohearyouareBothWellyourAuntWishesforAncerByReturnofPost."Theniecesrepliedthattheirauntmustchoosebetweenthedogandthem,andMrs.Newtonsendsasecondletterwhichbringsherdevelopmenttoaclimax.Itruns:-"DEARMISS--,IhaveReceveyourLetterandiWhentuptoyourAuntasyouWishmeandiTrytoPervealWithherabouttheDogButsheWoldnotPuttheDogawaynoritalowhimtoBeTiedupButSheStillWishesyoutoComeasSheesaystheDogShallnotinterrupyouforSheDontealowtheDognorittheCatstoGointheParlourneversenceShehashaditDonupferfereofSpoilingthePaintyourAuntthinkitvaryStrangeyouShouldBesovaryMuchafraidofaDogandShesaysyouCantGooutinLondonButWhatyouareupa ganceoneandShesaysSheWonteTrusttheDoginknowonehandsButherOwneforSheisafraidtheayWillnotfillisBelleyasheLivesuponRostBeeffandRostandBoilMouttenWichheEatsMorethentheServantesintheHousethereisnotaneyOneWoldBeabletoGiveSattefacktionuponthataccountHarryofferdtoTaketheDogButSheWoodnotTrusthiminourhandssoIColdnotDoaneythingWithheryourAuntyousetoTellMeWhenwewasatyourHouseinLondonSheDidnotknowhowtomakeyouamensandiToldherknowitwastheTimetoDoitButiConsidderShesetstheDogBeforeyouyourAuntkeepknowBeerknowSpritsknowWinesintheHouseofaneySortOneleyaLittleBarlofWineImadeherintheSummertheWorkmenandservantesareaBligetoDrinkwauterMorningNoonandNightyourAunttheSameSheDonteLowherSelfaneyTeenorCoffeeButisLoockingWonderfulWell"IStillRemaneyourHumbleServantMrsNewton"IamvarysorrytothinktheDogPerventesyourComeing"IamGladtohearyouareBothWellandwearethesame."Theniecesremainedfirm,andfromthefollowingletteritisplaintheauntgaveway.Thedogmotiveisrepeatedpianissimo,andisnotreturnedto--notatleastbyMrs.Newton."DEARMiss--,IReceveyourLetteronThursdayiWhenttoyourAuntandiseeherandSheisaGreabletoeverrythingiaskedherandsemesovaryMuchPleasetoseeyouBothNextTusedayandshehassentfortheFaggotstoDayandsheWillSendfortheColestoMorrowandiwillGouptheretoMorrowMorningandMaketheFiersandTendtotheBedsandsleepinitTillyouComeDownyourAuntsendsherLovetoyouBothandsheisQuitewellyourAuntWishesyouwoldWriteagaineBeforeyouComeasshemaExpeckyeandtheDogisnottoGointotheParloraTall"yourAuntkindLovetoyouBoth&hopesyouWonteFailinComingaccordingtoPrommisMRSNEWTON."Fromalaterletteritappearsthattheniecesdidnotpaytheir visitafterall,andwhatisworsealetterhadmiscarried,andtheauntsatupexpectingthemfromseventilltwelveatnight,andHarryhadpaidfor"FaggotsandColesquarterofHund.FaggotsHalftunofColes1l.1s.3d."Shortlyafterwards,however,"She"againtalksofcominguptoLondonherselfandwritesthroughherservant-"MyDeargirlsiReceveyourkindletter&IamhappytohearyouarbothWellandIWasinhopesofseeingofyouBothDownatMyHousethisspringtostayaWileIamQuitewellmyselfinHelthButvaryLowSpiretedIamvarysorrytoheartheMisfortingofPoorcharles&howhecumtoflieintheFierIcannotthink.IshouldliketoknowifheisdeadoraLive,andIshallcometoLondoninAugust&staythreeorfourdaiesifitisagreabletoyou.Mrs.NewtonhaslosthermotherinLaw4dayMarch&IhopeyousendmewordWathercharlesisDeadoraLiveassoonaspossible,andwillyousendmewordwhatLittleBettyisforIcannotmakeherout."Thenextletterisanewhandwriting,andtellstheniecesoftheiraunt"sdeathinthethefollowingterms:-"DEARMiss--,ItismymostpainfuldutytoinformyouthatyourdearauntexpiredthismorningcomparativelyeasyasHannahinformsmeandinsodoingrestoredhersoultothecustodyofhimwhomsheconsideredtobealoneworthyofitscare."Thedoctorhadvisitedheraboutfiveminutespreviouslyandhadappliedablister."YouandyoursisterwillIamsureexcusefurtherdetailsatpresentandbelievemewithkindestremembrancestoremain"Yourstruly,&c."Afterafewdaysalawyer"sletterinformstheniecesthattheiraunthadleftthemthebulkofhernotveryconsiderableproperty,buthadchargedthemwithanannuityof1poundaweektobepaidtoHarryandMrs.Newtonsolongasthedoglived.TheonlyotherlettersbyMrs.Newtonarewrittenonpaperofa differentandmoremodernsize;theyleaveanimpressionofhavingbeenwrittenagoodmanyyearslater.Itakethemastheycome.Thefirstisveryshort:-"DEARMiss--,iwritetosayicannotpossiblelycomeonWednesdayaswehavekilledapig.your"struely,"ELIZABETHNEWTON."Thesecondruns:-"DEARMiss--,ihopeyouarebothquitewellinhealth&yourLegmuchbetteriamhappytosayiamgettingquitewellagainihopeAmandyhasreachedyousafebythistimeisentasmallparclebyAmandy,therewashalfadozenPatsofbutter&theCakeswasveryhomelyandnotsolightasicouldwishihopebythistimeSarahAnnhaspromisedshewillstayuntillnextmondayasithinkafewdaieslongerwillnotmakemuchdiferanceandasheryoungmanhasbeenveryconsideratetowaitsolongashehasithinkhewouldforafewdaysLongerdearMiss--IwashforWilliamandihavenotgothisclothesyetasithasbeendelayedbythecarrier&icannotpossiblelygetitdonebeforeSundayandidonotLiketravilingonaSundaybuttoobligeyouiwouldcomebuttocomesoonericannotpossiblelybutihopeSarahAnnwillbeprevailedononcemoreasShehassomanytimesifeelsureifshetellsheryoungmanhewillhavepatientforheisaverykindyoungman"iremainyoursincerely"ELIZABETHNEWTON."ThelastletterinmycollectionseemswrittenalmostwithinmeasurabledistanceoftheChristmas-cardera.Thesheetisheadedbyabeautifullyembosseddeviceofsomehollyinredandgreen,wishingtherecipientoftheletteramerryXmasandahappynewyear,whiletheborderiscrimpedandedgedwithblue.Iknownotwhatitis,butthereissomethinginthewriter"shighlyfinishedstylethatremindsmeofMendelssohn.Itwouldalmostdoforthewordsofoneofhiscelebrated"LiederohneWorte": "DEARMISSMARIA,--IhastentoacknowledgethereceiptofyourkindnotewiththeinclosureforwhichIreturnmybestthanks.IneedscarcelysayhowgladIwastoknowthatthevolumessecuredyourapproval,andthattheannouncementoftheimprovementintheconditionofyourSister"slegsaffordedmeinfinitepleasure.Thegratifyingnewsencouragedmeinthehopethatnowthenatureofthedisorderiscomprehendedherlegswill--notwithstandingtheprocessmaybegradual--ultimatelygetquitewell.TheprettyRobinRedbreastwhichlayensconcedinyourepistle,conveyedtome,intermsmoreeloquentthanwords,howmuchyoudesiredmethoseComplimentswhichthelittlemissiveheboreinhisbillexpressed;theemblemissweetlypretty,andnowthatweareagainallowedtofelicitateeachotheronanotherrecurrenceoftheseasonoftheChristian"srejoicing,permitmetotendertoyourself,andbyyoutoyourSister,mineandmyWife"sheartfeltcongratulationsandwarmestwisheswithrespecttothecomingyear.Itisacommonbeliefthatifwetakearetrospectiveviewofeachdepartingyear,asitbehovesusannuallytodo,weshallfindtheblessingswhichwehavereceivedtoimmeasurablyoutnumberourcausesofsorrow.SpeakingformyselfIcanfullysubscribetothatsentiment,anddoubtlessneitherMiss--noryourselfareexceptions.Miss--"sillnessandconsequentconfinementtothehousehasbeenaseveretrial,butinthattroubleanopportunitywasaffordedyoutoproveaSister"sdevotionandshehasbeenenabledtorealisealarger(ifpossible)displayofsisterlyaffection."AhappyChristmastoyouboth,andmaythenewyearproveaCornucopiafromwhichstillgreaterblessingsthaneventhosewehavehithertoreceived,shallissue,tobenefitusallbycontributingtoourtemporalhappinessand,whatisofhigherimportance,conducingtoourfelicityhereafter."Iwassorrytohearthatyouweresoannoyedwithmiceandrats,andifIshouldhaveanopportunitytoobtainanicecatIwilldosoandsendmyboytoyourhousewithit."Iremain,"Yourstruly."Howlittlewhatiscommonlycallededucationcandoafteralltowardstheformationofagoodstyle,andwhatadelightfulvolumemightnotbeentitled"HalfHourswiththeWorstAuthors."Why,the finestwordIknowofintheEnglishlanguagewascoined,notbymypooroldgrandfather,whoseeducationhadleftlittletodesire,norbyanyoftheadmirablescholarswhomheinhisturneducated,butbyanoldmatronwhopresidedoveroneofthehalls,orhousesofhisschool.Thisgoodlady,whosenamebythewaywasBromfield,hadafinehightemperofherown,orthoughtitpolitictoaffectone.Onenightwhentheboyswereparticularlynoisysheburstlikeahurricaneintothehall,collaredayoungster,andtoldhimhewas"theramp-ingest-scampingest-rackety-tackety-tow-row-roaringestboyinthewholeschool."WouldMrs.Newtonhavebeenabletosettheauntandthedogbeforeussovividlyifshehadbeenmorehighlyeducated?WouldMrs.Bromfieldhavebeenabletoforgeandhurlherthunderboltofawordifshehadbeentaughthowtodoso,orindeedbeenatmuchpainstocreateitatall?Itcame.Itwasher[Greektext].Shedidnotprobablyknowthatshehaddonewhatthegreatestscholarwouldhavehadtorackhisbrainsoverformanyanhourbeforehecouldevenapproach.Traditionsaysthathavingbroughtdownherboyshelookedroundthehallintriumph,andthenafteramoment"slullsaid,"Younggentlemen,prayersareexcused,"andleftthem.Ihavesometimesthoughtthat,afterall,themainuseofaclassicaleducationconsistsinthecheckitgivestooriginality,andthewayinwhichitpreventsaninconvenientnumberofpeoplefromusingtheirowneyes.Thatwewillnotbeatthetroubleoflookingatthingsforourselvesifwecangetanyonetotelluswhatweoughttoseegoeswithoutsaying,anditisthebusinessofschoolsanduniversitiestoassistusinthisrespect.Thetheoryofevolutionteachesthatanypowernotworkedatprettyhighpressurewilldeteriorate:originalityandfreedomfromaffectationareallverywellintheirway,butwecaneasilyhavetoomuchofthem,anditisbetterthatnoneshouldbeeitheroriginalorfreefromcantbutthosewhoinsistonbeingso,nomatterwhathindrancesobstruct,norwhatincentivesareofferedthemtoseethingsthroughtheregulationmedium.Toinsistonseeingthingsforoneselfistobein[Greektext],orinplainEnglish,anidiot;nordoIseeanysafercheckagainstgeneralvigourandclearnessofthought,withconsequenttersenessofexpression,thanthatprovidedbythecurriculaofouruniversitiesandschoolsofpublicinstruction.Ifayoungman,inspiteofeveryefforttofithimwithblinkers,willinsiston gettingridofthem,hemustdosoathisownrisk.Hewillnotbelonginfindingouthismistake.Ourpublicschoolsanduniversitiesplaythebeneficentpartinoursocialschemethatcattledoinforests:theybrowsetheseedlingsdownandpreventthegrowthofallbuttheluckiestandsturdiest.Ofcourse,iftherearetoomanyeithercattleorschools,theybrowsesoeffectuallythattheyfindnomorefood,andstarvetillequilibriumisrestored;butitseemstobeaprovisionofnaturethatthereshouldalwaysbethesealternateperiods,duringwhicheitherthecattleorthetreesaregettingthebestofit;and,indeed,withoutsuchprovisionweshouldhaveneithertheonenortheother.Atthismomentthecattle,doubtless,areintheascendant,andifuniversityextensionproceedsmuchfarther,weshallassuredlyhavenomoreMrs.NewtonsandMrs.Bromfields;butwhateverisisbest,and,onthewhole,Ishouldproposetoletthingsfindprettymuchtheirownlevel.Howeverthismaybe,whocanquestionthatthetreasureshiddeninmanyacountryhousecontainsleepingbeautiesevenfairerthanthosethatIhaveendeavouredtowakenfromlongsleepintheforegoingarticle?HowmanyMrs.QuicklysaretherenotlivinginLondonatthispresentmoment?ForthatMrs.QuicklywasaninventionofShakespeare"sIwillnotbelieve.TheoldwomanfromwhomhedrewsaideverywordthatheputintoMrs.Quickly"smouth,andagreatdealmorewhichhedidnotandperhapscouldnotmakeuseof.Thisquestion,however,wouldagainleadmefarfrommysubject,whichIshouldmarwereItodwelluponitlonger,andthereforeleavewiththehopethatitmaygivemyreadersabsolutelynofoodwhateverforreflection.HOWTOMAKETHEBESTOFLIFE{4}Ihavebeenaskedtospeakonthequestionhowtomakethebestoflife,butmayaswellconfessatoncethatIknownothingaboutit.IcannotthinkthatIhavemadethebestofmyownlife,norisitlikelythatIshallmakemuchbetterofwhatmayormaynotremaintome.Idonotevenknowhowtomakethebestofthetwentyminutesthatyourcommitteehasplacedatmydisposal,andasforlifeasawhole,whoeveryetmadethebestofsuchacolossalopportunitybyconsciouseffortanddeliberation?Inlittlethings nodoubtdeliberateandconsciouseffortwillhelpus,butwearespeakingoflargeissues,andsuchkingdomsofheavenasthemakingthebestofthesecomenotbyobservation.Thequestion,therefore,onwhichIhaveundertakentoaddressyouis,asyoumustallknow,fatuous,ifitbefacedseriously.Lifeislikeplayingaviolinsoloinpublicandlearningtheinstrumentasonegoeson.Onecannotmakethebestofsuchimpossibilities,andthequestionisdoublyfatuousuntilwearetoldwhichofourtwolives--theconsciousortheunconscious--isheldbytheaskertobethetruerlife.Whichdoesthequestioncontemplate--thelifeweknow,orthelifewhichothersmayknow,butwhichweknownot?Deathgivesalifetosomemenandwomencomparedwithwhichtheirso-calledexistencehereisasnothing.WhichisthetruerlifeofShakespeare,Handel,thatdivinewomanwhowrotethe"Odyssey,"andofJaneAusten--thelifewhichpalpitatedwithsensiblewarmmotionwithintheirownbodies,orthatinvirtueofwhichtheyarestillpalpitatinginours?Inwhoseconsciousnessdoestheirtruestlifeconsist--theirown,orours?CanShakespearebesaidtohavebegunhistruelifetillahundredyearsorsoafterhewasdeadandburied?Hisphysicallifewasbutasanembryonicstage,acomingupoutofdarkness,atwilightanddawnbeforethesunriseofthatlifeoftheworldtocomewhichhewastoenjoyhereafter.Weallliveforawhileafterwearegonehence,butweareforthemostpartstillborn,oratanyratedieininfancy,asregardsthatlifewhicheveryageandcountryhasrecognisedashigherandtruerthantheoneofwhichwearenowsentient.Asthelifeoftheraceislarger,longer,andinallrespectsmoretobeconsideredthanthatoftheindividual,soisthelifeweliveinotherslargerandmoreimportantthantheoneweliveinourselves.Thisappearsnowhereperhapsmoreplainlythaninthecaseofgreatteachers,whoofteninthelivesoftheirpupilsproduceaneffectthatreachesfarbeyondanythingproducedwhiletheirsingleliveswereyetunsupplementedbythoseotherlivesintowhichtheyinfusedtheirown.Deathtosuchpeopleistheendingofashortlife,butitdoesnottouchthelifetheyarealreadylivinginthosewhomtheyhavetaught;andhappily,asnonecanknowwhenheshalldie,sononecanmakesurethathetooshallnotlivelongbeyondthegrave;forthelifeafterdeathislikemoneybeforeit--noonecanbesurethatitmaynotfalltohimorherevenattheeleventhhour.Moneyandimmortalitycomeinsuchoddunaccountablewaysthatnooneiscut offfromhope.Wemaynothavemadeeitherofthemforourselves,butyetanothermaygivethemtousinvirtueofhisorherlove,whichshallillumineusforever,andestablishusinsomeheavenlymansionwhereofweneitherdreamednorshalleverdream.LookattheDogeLoredanoLoredani,theoldman"ssmileuponwhosefacehasbeenreproducedsofaithfullyinsomanylandsthatitcanneverhenceforthbeforgotten--wouldhehavehadonehundredthpartofthelifehenowliveshadhenotbeenlinkedawhilewithoneofthoseheaven-sentmenwhoknowchecosaeamor?LookatRembrandt"soldwomaninourNationalGallery;hadshediedbeforeshewaseighty-threeyearsoldshewouldnothavebeenlivingnow.Then,whenshewaseighty-three,immortalitypercheduponherasabirdonawitheredbough.Iseemtohearsomeonesaythatthisisamockery,apieceofspecialpleading,agivingofstonestothosethataskforbread.Lifeisnotlifeunlesswecanfeelit,andalifelimitedtoaknowledgeofsuchfractionofourworkasmayhappentosurviveusisnotruelifeinotherpeople;salveitaswemay,deathisnotlifeanymorethanblackiswhite.Theobjectionisnotsotrueasitsounds.Idonotdenythatwehadrathernotdie,nordoIpretendthatmucheveninthecaseofthemostfavouredfewcansurvivethembeyondthegrave.Itisonlybecausethisissothatourownlifeispossible;othershavemaderoomforus,andweshouldmakeroomforothersinourturnwithoutunduerepining.WhatImaintainisthatanotinconsiderablenumberofpeopledoactuallyattaintoalifebeyondthegravewhichwecanallfeelforciblyenough,whethertheycandosoornot--thatthislifetendswithincreasingcivilisationtobecomemoreandmorepotent,andthatitisbetterworthconsidering,inspiteofitsbeingunfeltbyourselves,thananywhichwehavefeltorcaneverfeelinourownpersons.Takeanextremecase.AgroupofpeoplearephotographedbyEdison"snewprocess--sayTitiens,Trebelli,andJennyLind,withanytwoofthefinestmensingerstheagehasknown--letthembephotographedincessantlyforhalfanhourwhiletheyperformascenein"Lohengrin";letallbedonestereoscopically.Letthembephonographedatthesametimesothattheirminutestshadesofintonationarepreserved,lettheslidesbecolouredbyacompetentartist,andthenletthescenebecalledsuddenlyintosightandsound,sayahundredyearshence.Arethosepeopledeadoralive?Deadtothemselvestheyare,butwhiletheylivesopowerfullyand solivinglyinus,whichisthegreaterparadox--tosaythattheyarealiveorthattheyaredead?Tomyselfitseemsthattheirlifeinotherswouldbemoretrulylifethantheirdeathtothemselvesisdeath.Grantedthattheydonotpresentallthephenomenaoflife--whoeverdoessoevenwhenheisheldtobealive?Weareheldtobealivebecausewepresentasufficientnumberoflivingphenomenatolettheothersgowithoutsaying;thosewhoseeustakethepartforthewholehereasineverythingelse,andsurely,inthecasesupposedabove,thephenomenaoflifepredominatesopowerfullyoverthoseofdeath,thatthepeoplethemselvesmustbeheldtobemorealivethandead.Ourlivingpersonalityis,asthewordimplies,onlyourmask,andthosewhostillownsuchamaskasIhavesupposedhavealivingpersonality.Grantedagainthatthecasejustputisanextremeone;stillmanyamanandmanyawomanhassostampedhimorherselfonhisworkthat,thoughwewouldgladlyhavetheaidofsuchaccessoriesaswedoubtlesspresentlyshallhavetothelivingnessofourgreatdead,wecanseethemverysufficientlythroughthemasterpiecestheyhaveleftus.AsfortheirownunconsciousnessIdonotdenyit.Thelifeoftheembryowasunconsciousbeforebirth,andsoisthelife--Iamspeakingonlyoftheliferevealedtousbynaturalreligion--afterdeath.Butastheembryonicandinfantlifeofwhichwewereunconsciouswasthemostpotentfactorinourafterlifeofconsciousness,sotheeffectwhichwemayunconsciouslyproduceinothersafterdeath,anditmaybeevenbeforeitonthosewhohaveneverseenus,isinallsoberseriousnessourtruerandmoreabidinglife,andtheonewhichthosewhowouldmakethebestoftheirsojournherewilltakemostintotheirconsideration.Unconsciousnessisnobartolivingness.Ourconsciousactionsareadropintheseaascomparedwithourunconsciousones.Couldweknowallthelifethatisinusbywayofcirculation,nutrition,breathing,wasteandrepair,weshouldlearnwhataninfinitesimallysmallpartconsciousnessplaysinourpresentexistence;yetourunconsciouslifeisastrulylifeasourconsciouslife,andthoughitisunconscioustoitselfitemergesintoanindirectandvicariousconsciousnessinourotherandconsciousself,whichexistsbutinvirtueofourunconsciousself.Sowehavealsoavicariousconsciousnessinothers.Theunconsciouslifeofthosethathavegonebeforeushasingreatpartmouldedusintosuchmenandwomenasweare,andourownunconsciousliveswillinlikemannerhaveavicariousconsciousnessinothers,thoughwebedeadenoughtoitinourselves. Ifitisagainurgedthatitmattersnottoushowmuchwemaybealiveinothers,ifwearetoknownothingaboutit,Ireplythatthecommoninstinctofallwhoareworthconsideringgivesthelietosuchcynicism.Iseeherepresentsomewhohaveachieved,andotherswhonodoubtwillachieve,successinliterature.Willoneofthemhesitatetoadmitthatitisalivelypleasuretohertofeelthatontheothersideoftheworldsomeonemaybesmilinghappilyoverherwork,andthatsheisthuslivinginthatpersonthoughsheknowsnothingaboutit?Hereitseemstomethattruefaithcomesin.Faithdoesnotconsist,astheSundaySchoolpupilsaid,"inthepowerofbelievingthatwhichweknowtobeuntrue."Itconsistsinholdingfastthatwhichthehealthiestandmostkindlyinstinctsofthebestandmostsensiblemenandwomenareintuitivelypossessedof,withoutcaringtorequiremuchevidencefurtherthanthefactthatsuchpeoplearesoconvinced;andformyownpartIfindthebestmenandwomenIknowunanimousinfeelingthatlifeinothers,eventhoughweknownothingaboutit,isneverthelessathingtobedesiredandgratefullyacceptedifwecangetiteitherbeforedeathorafter.Iobservealsothatalargenumberofmenandwomendoactuallyattaintosuchlife,andinsomecasescontinuesotolive,ifnotforever,yettowhatispracticallymuchthesamething.Ourlifetheninthisworldis,tonaturalreligionasmuchastorevealed,aperiodofprobation.Theusewemakeofitistosettlehowfarwearetoenterintoanother,andwhetherthatotheristobeaheavenofjustaffectionorahellofrighteouscondemnation.Who,then,arethemostlikelysotorunthattheymayobtainthisveritableprizeofourhighcalling?Settingasidesuchluckynumbersdrawnasitwereinthelotteryofimmortality,whichIhavereferredtocasuallyabove,andsettingasidealsothechancesandchangesfromwhichevenimmortalityisnotexempt,whoonthewholearemostlikelytoliveanewintheaffectionatethoughtsofthosewhoneversomuchassawthemintheflesh,andknownoteventheirnames?Thereisanisus,astraininginthedulldumbeconomyofthings,invirtueofwhichsome,whethertheywillitandknowitorno,aremorelikelytoliveafterdeaththanothers,andwhoarethese?Thosewhoaimedatitasbysomegreatthingthattheywoulddotomakethemfamous?Thosewhohavelivedmostinthemselvesandforthemselves,orthosewhohavebeenmostensouledconsciously,butperhapsbetterunconsciously,directlybutmoreoftenindirectly,bythemostlivingsoulspastandpresentthathaveflittednearthem?Canwethinkofamanorwomanwhogripsus firmly,atthethoughtofwhomwekindlewhenwearealoneinourhonestdaw"splumes,withnonetoadmireorshrughisshoulders,canwethinkofonesuch,thesecretofwhosepowerdoesnotlieinthecharmofhisorherpersonality--thatistosay,inthewidenessofhisorhersympathywith,andthereforelifeinandcommunionwithotherpeople?Inthewreckagethatcomesashorefromtheseaoftimethereismuchtinselstuffthatwemustpreserveandstudyifwewouldknowourowntimesandpeople;grantedthatmanyadeadcharlatanliveslongandenterslargelyandnecessarilyintoourownlives;weusethemandthrowthemawaywhenwehavedonewiththem.Idonotspeakofthese,IdonotspeakoftheVirgilsandAlexanderPopes,andwhocansayhowmanymorewhosenamesIdarenotmentionforfearofoffending.TheyareasstuffedbirdsorbeastsinaMuseum,serviceablenodoubtfromascientificstandpoint,butwithnovividorvivifyingholduponus.Theyseemtobealive,butarenot.Iamspeakingofthosewhodoactuallyliveinus,andmoveustohigherachievementsthoughtheybelongdead,whoselifethrustsoutourownandoverridesit.Ispeakofthosewhodrawusevermoretowardsthemfromyouthtoage,andtothinkofwhomistofeelatoncethatweareinthehandsofthosewelove,andwhomwewouldmostwishtoresemble.Whatisthesecretoftheholdthatthesepeoplehaveuponus?Isitnotthatwhile,conventionallyspeaking,alive,theymostmergedtheirlivesin,andwereinfullestcommunionwiththoseamongwhomtheylived?Theyfoundtheirlivesinlosingthem.Weneverlovethememoryofanyoneunlesswefeelthatheorshewashimselforherselfalover.Ihaveseeniturged,again,inquerulousaccents,thattheso-calledimmortalityevenofthemostimmortalisnotforever.IseeapassagetothiseffectinabookthatismakingastirasIwrite.Iwillquoteit.Thewritersays:-"So,itseemstome,istheimmortalitywesogliblypredicateofdepartedartists.Iftheysurviveatall,itisbutashadowylifetheylive,movingonthroughthegradationsofslowdecaytodistantbutinevitabledeath.Theycannolonger,asheretofore,speakdirectlytotheheartsoftheirfellow-men,evokingtheirtearsorlaughter,andallthepleasures,betheysadormerry,ofwhichimaginationholdsthesecret.Drivenfromthemarketplacetheybecomefirstthecompanionsofthestudent,thenthevictimsofthespecialist.Hewhowouldstillholdfamiliarintercoursewiththemmusttrainhimselftopenetratetheveilwhichinever-thickeningfoldsconcealsthemfromtheordinarygaze;hemustcatchthetone ofavanishedsociety,hemustmoveinacircleofalienassociations,hemustthinkinalanguagenothisown."{5}Thisiscryingforthemoon,orratherpretendingtocryforit,forthewriterisobviouslyinsincere.IseetheSaturdayReviewsaysthepassageIhavejustquoted"reachesalmosttopoetry,"andindeedIfindmanyblankversesinit,someofthemveryaggressive.Noproseisfreefromanoccasionalblankverse,andagoodwriterwillnotgohuntingoverhisworktoroutthemout,butnineorteninlittlemorethanasmanylinesisindeedreachingtooneartopoetryforgoodprose.This,however,isatrifle,andmightpassifthetoneofthewriterwasnotsoobviouslythatofcheappessimism.Iknownotwhichischeapest,pessimismoroptimism.Oneforceslights,theotherdarks;bothareequallyuntruetogoodart,andequallysureoftheireffectwiththegroundlings.Theoneextenuates,theothersetsdowninmalice.Thefirstisthemoreamiablelie,butbotharelies,andareknowntobesobythosewhoutterthem.TalkaboutcatchingthetoneofavanishedsocietytounderstandRembrandtorGiovanniBellini!It"snonsense--thefoldsdonotthickeninfrontofthesemen;weunderstandthemaswellasthoseamongwhomtheywentaboutintheflesh,andperhapsbetter.HomerandShakespearespeaktousprobablyfarmoreeffectuallythantheydidtothemenoftheirowntime,andmostlikelywehavethemattheirbest.IcannotthinkthatShakespearetalkedbetterthanwehearhimnowin"Hamlet"or"HenrytheFourth";likeenoughhewouldhavebeenfoundaverydisappointingpersoninadrawing-room.Peoplestampthemselvesontheirwork;iftheyhavenotdonesotheyarenaught;iftheyhavewehavethem;andforthemostparttheystampthemselvesdeeperintheirworkthanontheirtalk.NodoubtShakespeareandHandelwillbeonedaycleanforgotten,asthoughtheyhadneverbeenborn.Theworldwillintheenddie;mortalitythereforeitselfisnotimmortal,andwhendeathdiesthelifeofthesemenwilldiewithit--butnotsooner.Itisenoughthattheyshouldlivewithinusandmoveusformanyagesastheyhaveandwill.Suchimmortality,therefore,assomemenandwomenarebornto,achieve,orhavethrustuponthem,isapracticalifnotatechnicalimmortality,andhewhowouldhavemorelethimhavenothing.IseeIhavedriftedintospeakingratherofhowtomakethebestofdeaththanoflife,butwhocanspeakoflifewithouthisthoughtsturninginstantlytothatwhichisbeyondit?Heorshewhohasmadethebestofthelifeafterdeathhasmadethebestofthelife beforeit;whocaresonestrawforanysuchchancesandchangesaswillcommonlybefallhimhereifheisupheldbythefullandcertainhopeofeverlastinglifeintheaffectionsofthosethatshallcomeafter?Ifthelifeafterdeathishappyintheheartsofothers,itmatterslittlehowunhappywasthelifebeforeit.AndnowIleavemysubject,notwithoutmisgivingthatIshallhavedisappointedyou.ButforthegreatattentionwhichisbeingpaidtotheworkfromwhichIhavequotedabove,Ishouldnothavethoughtitwelltoinsistonpointswithwhichyouare,Idoubtnot,asfullyimpressedasIam:butthatbookweakensthesanctionsofnaturalreligion,andminimisesthecomfortwhichitaffordsus,whileitdoesmoretounderminethantosupportthefoundationsofwhatiscommonlycalledbelief.ThereforeIwasgladtoembracethisopportunityofprotesting.OtherwiseIshouldnothavebeensoseriousonamatterthattranscendsallseriousness.LordBeaconsfieldcutitshorterwithmoreeffect.Whenaskedtogivearuleoflifeforthesonofafriendhesaid,"DonotlethimtryandfindoutwhowrotethelettersofJunius."Pressedforfurthercounselheadded,"Noryetwhowasthemanintheironmask"--andhewouldsaynomore.Don"tborepeople.AndyetIambynomeanssurethatagoodmanypeopledonotthinkthemselvesill-usedunlesshewhoaddressesthemhasthoroughlywellboredthem--especiallyiftheyhavepaidanymoneyforhearinghim.Mygreatnamesakesaid,"Surelythepleasureisasgreatofbeingcheatedastocheat,"andgreatasthepleasurebothofcheatingandboringundoubtedlyis,Ibelievehewasright.SoIrememberapoemwhichcameoutsomethirtyyearsagoinPunch,aboutayoungladywhowentforthinquestto"Someburdenmakeorburdenbear,butwhichshedidnotgreatlycare,ohMiserie."So,again,alltheholymenandwomenwhointheMiddleAgesprofessedtohavediscoveredhowtomakethebestoflifetookcarethatbeingbored,ifnotcheated,shouldhavealargeplaceintheirprogramme.Stilltherearelimits,andIclosenotwithoutfearthatImayhaveexceededthem.THESANCTUARYOFMONTRIGONE{6}TheonlyplaceintheValsesia,exceptVarallo,whereIatpresentsuspectthepresenceofTabachetti{7}isatMontrigone,alittle-knownsanctuarydedicatedtoSt.Anne,aboutthree-quartersofa milesouthofBorgo-Sesiastation.Thesituationis,ofcourse,lovely,butthesanctuarydoesnotofferanyfeaturesofarchitecturalinterest.Thesacristantoldmeitwasfoundedin1631;andin1644Giovannid"Enrico,whileengagedinsuperintendingandcompletingtheworkundertakenherebyhimselfandGiacomoFerro,fellillanddied.Idonotknowwhetherornotherewasanearliersanctuaryonthesamesite,butwastolditwasbuiltonthedemolitionofastrongholdbelongingtotheCountsofBiandrate.TheincidentswhichitillustratesaretreatedwithevenmorethanthehomelinessusualinworksofthisdescriptionwhennotdealingwithsuchsolemneventsasthedeathandpassionofChrist.Exceptwhenthesesubjectswerebeingrepresented,somethingofthelatitude,andevenhumour,allowedintheoldmysteryplayswaspermitted,doubtlessfromadesiretorendertheworkmoreattractivetothepeasants,whowerethemostnumerousandmostimportantpilgrims.Itisnotuntilfaithbeginstobeweakthatitfearsanoccasionallylightertreatmentofsemi-sacredsubjects,anditisimpossibletoconveyanaccurateideaofthespiritprevailingatthishamletofsanctuarywithoutattuningoneselfsomewhattothemorepagancharacteroftheplace.Ofirreverence,inthesenseofadesiretolaughatthingsthatareofhighandseriousimport,thereisnotatrace,butatthesametimethereisacertainunbendingofthebowatMontrigonewhichisnotperceivableatVarallo.ThefirstchapeltotheleftonenteringthechurchisthatoftheBirthoftheVirgin.St.Anneissittingupinbed.Sheisnotatallill--infact,consideringthattheVirginhasonlybeenbornaboutfiveminutes,sheiswonderful;stillthedoctorsthinkitmaybeperhapsbetterthatsheshouldkeepherroomforhalfanhourlonger,sothebedhasbeenfestoonedwithredandwhitepaperroses,andthecounterpaneiscoveredwithbouquetsinbasketsandinvasesofglassandchina.ThesecannothavebeenthereduringtheactualbirthoftheVirgin,soIsupposetheyhadbeeninreadiness,andwerebroughtinfromanadjoiningroomassoonasthebabyhadbeenborn.Aladyonherleftisbringinginsomemoreflowers,whichSt.Anneisreceivingwithasmileandmostgraciousgestureofthehands.Thefirstthingsheaskedfor,whenthebirthwasover,wasforherthreesilverhearts.Thesewereimmediatelybroughttoher,andshehasgotthemallon,tiedroundherneckwithapieceofbluesilkribbon.Dearmammahascome.Wefeltsureshewould,andthatanylittle misunderstandingsbetweenherandJoachimwoulderelongbeforgottenandforgiven.Theyarebothsogoodandsensibleiftheywouldonlyunderstandoneanother.Atanyrate,heresheis,inhighstateattherighthandofthebed.Sheisdressedinblack,forshehaslostherhusbandsomefewyearspreviously,butIdonotbelieveasmarter,sprieroldladyforheryearscouldbefoundinPalestine,noryetthateitherGiovannid"EnricoorGiacomoFerrocouldhaveconceivedorexecutedsuchacharacter.Thesacristanwantedtohaveitthatshewasnotawomanatall,butwasaportraitofSt.Joachim,theVirgin"sfather."Sembraunadonna,"hepleadedmorethanonce,"manonedonna."Surely,however,inworksofartevenmorethaninotherthings,thereisno"is"butseeming,andifafigureseemsfemaleitmustbetakenassuch.Besides,IaskedoneoftheleadingdoctorsatVarallowhetherthefigurewasmanorwoman.HesaiditwasevidentIwasnotmarried,forthatifIhadbeenIshouldhaveseenatoncethatshewasnotonlyawomanbutamother-in-lawofthefirstmagnitude,or,ashecalledit,"unasuoceratremenda,"andthiswithoutknowingthatIwantedhertobeamother-in-lawmyself.Unfortunatelyshehadnorealdrapery,soIcouldnotsettlethequestionasmyfriendMr.H.F.JonesandIhadbeenabletodoatVarallowiththefigureofEvethathadbeenturnedintoaRomansoldierassistingatthecaptureofChrist.Iamnot,however,disposedtowastemoretimeuponanythingsoobvious,andwillcontentmyselfwithsayingthatwehaveheretheVirgin"sgrandmother.Ihadneverhadthepleasure,sofarasIremembered,ofmeetingthisladybefore,andwasgladtohaveanopportunityofmakingheracquaintance.TraditionsaysthatitwasshewhochosetheVirgin"sname,andifso,whatadebtofgratitudedowenotoweherforherjudiciousselection!ItmakesoneshuddertothinkwhatmighthavehappenedifshehadnamedthechildKeren-Happuch,aspoorJob"sdaughterwascalled.Howcouldwehavesaid,"AveKeren-Happuch!"Whatwouldthemusicianshavedone?IforgetwhetherMaher-Shalal-Hash-Bazwasamanorawoman,buttherewereplentyofnamesquiteasunmanageableattheVirgin"sgrandmother"soption,andwecannotsufficientlythankherforhavingchosenonethatissoeuphoniousineverylanguagewhichweneedtakeintoaccount.Forthisreasonaloneweshouldnotgrudgeherherportrait,butweshouldtrytodrawthelinehere.IdonotthinkweoughttogivetheVirgin"sgreat-grandmotherastatue.Whereisittoend?ItislikeMr.Crookes"sultimissimateatoms;weusedtodrawthelineatultimateatoms,andnowitseemswearetogoastepfartherbackandhaveultimissimateatoms.Howlong,Iwonder,willitbebeforewefeel thatitwillbeamaterialhelptoustohaveultimissimissimateatoms?Quaversstoppedatdemi-semi-demi,butthereisnoreasontosupposethateitheratomsorancestressesoftheVirginwillbesocomplacent.IhavesaidthatonSt.Anne"slefthandthereisaladywhoisbringinginsomeflowers.St.Annewasalwayspassionatelyfondofflowers.ThereisaprettystorytoldaboutherinoneoftheFathers,Iforgetwhich,totheeffectthatwhenachildshewasaskedwhichshelikedbest--cakesorflowers?Shecouldnotyetspeakplainlyandlispedout,"Ohfowses,prettyfowses";sheadded,however,withasighandasakindofwistfulcorollary,"butcakesareverynice."Sheisnottohaveanycakes,justnow,butassoonasshehasdonethankingtheladyforherbeautifulnosegay,sheistohaveacoupleofnicenew-laideggs,thatarebeingbroughtherbyanotherlady.Valsesianwomenimmediatelyaftertheirconfinementalwayshaveeggsbeatenupwithwineandsugar,andonecantellaValsesianBirthoftheVirginfromaVenetianoraFlorentinebythepresenceoftheeggs.IlearnedthisfromaneminentValsesianprofessorofmedicine,whotoldmethat,thoughnotaccordingtoreceivedrules,theeggsneverseemedtodoanyharm.Heretheyareevidentlytobebeatenup,forthereisneitherspoonnoregg-cup,andwecannotsupposethattheywerehard-boiled.Ontheotherhand,intheMiddleAgesItaliansneverusedegg-cupsandspoonsforboiledeggs.Themediaevalboiledeggwasalwayseatenbydippingbreadintotheyolk.Behindtheladywhoisbringingintheeggsistheunder-under-nursewhoisatthefirewarmingatowel.Intheforegroundwehavetheregulationmidwifeholdingtheregulationbaby(who,bytheway,wasanastonishinglyfinechildforonlyfiveminutesold).Thencomestheunder-nurse--agoodbuxomcreature,who,asusual,isfeelingthewaterinthebathtoseethatitisoftherighttemperature.Nexttoheristhehead-nurse,whoisarrangingthecradle.Behindthehead-nurseistheunder-under-nurse"sdrudge,whoisjustgoingoutuponsomeerrands.Lastly--forbythistimewehavegotallroundthechapel--wearriveattheVirgin"sgrandmother"s-body-guard,astately,responsible-lookinglady,standinginwaitinguponhermistress.Iputittothereader--isitconceivablethatSt.Joachimshouldhavebeenallowedinsucharoomatsuchatime,orthatheshouldhavehadthecouragetoavailhimselfofthepermission,eventhoughithadbeenextendedtohim?Atanyrate,isitconceivablethatheshouldhavebeenallowedtositonSt.Anne"srighthand,layingdownthelawwitha"Marry,comeuphere," anda"Marry,go-downthere,"andacoupleofsuchunabashedcollarsastheoldladyhasputonfortheoccasion?Moreover(forImayaswelldemolishthismischievousconfusionbetweenSt.Joachimandhismother-in-lawonceandforall),themeresttyroinhagiologyknowsthatSt.JoachimwasnotathomewhentheVirginwasborn.Hehadbeenhustledoutofthetempleforhavingnochildren,andhadfleddesolateanddismayedintothewilderness.Itshowshowsillypeopleare,forallthetimehewasgoing,iftheyhadonlywaitedalittle,tobethefatherofthemostremarkablepersonofpurelyhumanoriginwhohadeverbeenborn,andsuchaparentasthisshouldsurelynotbehurried.ThestoryistoldinthefrescoesofthechapelofLoreto,onlyaquarterofanhour"swalkfromVarallo,andnoonecanhaveknownitbetterthanD"Enrico.Thefrescoesareexplainedbywrittenpassagesthattellushow,whenJoachimwasinthedesert,anangelcametohimintheguiseofafair,civilyounggentleman,andtoldhimtheVirginwastobeborn.Then,lateron,thesameyounggentlemanappearedtohimagain,andbadehim"inGod"snamebecomforted,andturnagaintohiscontent,"fortheVirginhadbeenactuallyborn.OnwhichSt.Joachim,whoseemstohavebeenofopinionthatmarriageafterallWASratherafailure,saidthat,asthingsweregoingonsonicelywithouthim,hewouldstayinthedesertjustalittlelonger,andofferedupalambasapretexttogaintime.Perhapsheguessedabouthismother-in-law,orhemayhaveaskedtheangel.Ofcourse,eveninspiteofsuchevidenceasthisImaybemistakenabouttheVirgin"sgrandmother"ssex,andthesacristanmayberight;butIcanonlysaythatiftheladysittingbySt.Anne"sbedsideatMontrigoneistheVirgin"sfather--well,inthatcaseImustreconsideragooddealthatIhavebeenaccustomedtobelievewasbeyondquestion.Takensingly,Isupposethatnoneofthefiguresinthechapel,excepttheVirgin"sgrandmother,shouldberatedveryhighly.Theunder-nurseisthenextbestfigure,andmightverywellbeTabachetti"s,forneitherGiovannid"EnriconorGiacomoFerrowassuccessfulwithhisfemalecharacters.ThereisnotasinglereallycomfortablewomaninanychapelbyeitherofthemontheSacroMonteatVarallo.Tabachetti,ontheotherhand,delightedinwomen;iftheywereyounghemadethemcomelyandengaging,iftheywereoldhegavethemdignityandindividualcharacter,andtheunder-nurseismuchmoreinaccordancewithTabachetti"shabitualmentalattitudethanwithD"Enrico"sorGiacomoFerro"s.Stillthereareonlyfourfiguresoutoftheeleventhataremereotiosesupers,and takingtheworkasawholeitleavesapleasantimpressionasbeingthroughoutnaiveandhomely,andsometimes,whichisoflessimportance,technicallyexcellent.Allowancemust,ofcourse,bemadefortawdryaccessoriesandrepeatedcoatsofshinyoleaginouspaint--verydisagreeablewhereithaspeeledoffandalmostmoresowhereithasnot.WhatworkcouldstandagainstsuchtreatmentastheValsesianterra-cottafigureshavehadtoputupwith?TaketheVenusofMilo;letherbedoneinterra-cotta,andhaverun,notmuch,butstillsomething,inthebaking;paintherpink,twooils,allover,andthenvarnishher--itwillhelptopreservethepaint;gluealotofhorsehairontoherpate,halfofwhichshallhavecomeoff,leavingthegluestillshowing;scrapeher,nottoothoroughly,getthevillagedrawing-mastertopaintheragain,andthedrawing-masterinthenextprovincialtowntoputaforestbackgroundbehindherwiththebrightestemerald-greenleavesthathecandoforthemoney;letthispaintingandscrapingandrepaintingberepeatedseveraltimesover;festoonherwithpinkandwhiteflowersmadeoftissuepaper;surroundherwiththecheapestGermanimitationsofthecheapestdecorationsthatBirminghamcanproduce;letthenightairandwinterfogsgetatherforthreehundredyears,andhoweasy,Iwonder,willitbetoseethegoddesswhowillbestillingreatpartthere?True,inthecaseoftheBirthoftheVirginchapelatMontrigone,thereisnorealhairandnofrescobackground,buttimehashadabundantopportunitieswithoutthese.Iwillconcludemynoticeofthischapelbysayingthatontheleft,abovethedoorthroughwhichtheunder-under-nurse"sdrudgeisabouttopass,thereisagoodpaintedterra-cottabust,said--butIbelieveonnoauthority--tobeaportraitofGiovannid"Enrico.OtherssaythattheVirgin"sgrandmotherisGiovannid"Enrico,butthisisevenmoreabsurdthansupposinghertobeSt.Joachim.ThenextchapeltotheBirthoftheVirginisthatoftheSposalizio.ThereisnofigureherewhichsuggestsTabachetti,butstilltherearesomeverygoodones.Thebesthavenotaintofbarocco;themanwhodidthem,whoeverhemayhavebeen,hadevidentlyagooddealoflifeandgo,wastakingreasonablepains,anddidnotknowtoomuch.Wherethisisthecasenoworkcanfailtoplease.Someofthefigureshaverealhairandsometerracotta.Thereisnofrescobackgroundworthmentioning.Amansittingonthestepsofthealtarwithabookonhislap,andholdinguphishandtoanother,whoisleaningoverhimandtalkingtohim,isamongthebestfigures;someofthedisappointedsuitorswhoare breakingtheirwandsarealsoverygood.TheangelintheAnnunciationchapel,whichcomesnextinorder,isafine,burly,ship"s-figurehead,commercial-hotelsortofbeingenough,buttheVirginisveryordinary.Thereisnorealhairandnofrescobackground,onlythreedingyoldblisteredpicturesofnointerestwhatever.InthevisitofMarytoElizabeththerearethreepleasingsubordinateladyattendants,twototheleftandonetotherightoftheprincipalfigures;butthesefiguresthemselvesarenotsatisfactory.Thereisnofrescobackground.Someofthefigureshaverealhairandsometerracotta.IntheCircumcisionandPurificationchapel--forboththeseeventsseemcontemplatedintheonethatfollows--therearedoves,butthereisneitherdognorknife.StillSimeon,whohastheinfantSaviourinhisarms,islookingathiminawaywhichcanonlymeanthat,knifeornoknife,thematterisnotgoingtoendhere.AtVarallotheyhavenowgotadreadfulknifefortheCircumcisionchapel.Theyhadnonelastwinter.Whattheyhavenowgotwoulddoverywelltokillabullockwith,butcouldnotbeusedprofessionallywithsafetyforanyanimalsmallerthanarhinoceros.IimaginethatsomeonewassenttoNovaratobuyaknife,andthat,thinkingitwasfortheMassacreoftheInnocentschapel,hegotthebiggesthecouldsee.Thenwhenhebroughtitbackpeoplesaid"chow"severaltimes,andputituponthetableandwentaway.ReturningtoMontrigone,theSimeonisanexcellentfigure,andtheVirginisfairlygood,buttheprophetessAnna,whostandsjustbehindher,isbyfarthemostinterestinginthegroup,andisaloneenoughtomakemefeelsurethatTabachettigavemoreorlesshelphere,ashehaddoneyearsbeforeatOrta.She,too,liketheVirgin"sgrandmother,isawidowlady,andwearscollarsofacutthatseemstohaveprevailedeversincetheVirginwasbornsometwentyyearspreviously.Thereisalargenessandsimplicityoftreatmentaboutthefiguretowhichnonebutanartistofthehighestrankcanreach,andD"Enricowasnotmorethanasecondorthird-rateman.ThehoodislikeHandel"sTruthsailinguponthebroadwingsofTime,apropheticstrainthatnothingbuttheoldexperienceofagreatpoetcanreach.Thelipsoftheprophetessareforthemomentclosed,butshehasbeenprophesyingallthemorning,andthepeopleroundthewallinthebackgroundareinecstasiesattheluciditywithwhichshehasexplainedallsortsof difficultiesthattheyhadneverbeenabletounderstandtillnow.Theyareputtingtheirforefingersontheirthumbsandtheirthumbsontheirforefingers,andsayinghowclearlytheyseeitallandwhatawonderfulwomanAnnais.Aprophetindeedisnotgenerallywithouthonoursaveinhisowncountry,butthenacountryisgenerallynotwithouthonoursavewithitsownprophet,andAnnahasbeenglorifyinghercountryratherthanrevilingit.Besides,therulemaynothaveappliedtoprophetesses.TheDeathoftheVirginisthelastofthesixchapelsinsidethechurchitself.TheApostles,whoofcoursearepresent,haveallofthemrealhair,but,ifImaysayso,theywantawashandabrush-upsoverybadlythatIcannotfeelanyconfidenceinwritingaboutthem.Ishouldsaythat,takethemallround,theyareagoodaveragesampleofapostleasapostlesgenerallygo.Twoorthreeofthemarenervouslyanxioustofindappropriatequotationsinbooksthatlieopenbeforethem,whichtheyaresearchingwitheagerhaste;butIdonotseeonefigureaboutwhichIshouldliketosaypositivelythatitiseithergoodorbad.Thereisagoodbustofaman,matchingtheoneintheBirthoftheVirginchapel,whichissaidtobeaportraitofGiovannid"Enrico,butitisnotknownwhomitrepresents.Outsidethechurch,inthreecontiguouscellsthatformpartofthefoundations,are:-1.AdeadChrist,theheadofwhichisveryimpressivewhiletherestofthefigureispoor.Iexaminedthetreatmentofthehair,whichisterra-cotta,andcompareditwithallotherlikehairinthechapelsabovedescribed;Icouldfindnothinglikeit,andthinkitmostlikelythatGiacomoFerrodidthefigure,andgotTabachettitodothehead,orthattheybroughttheheadfromsomeunusedfigurebyTabachettiatVarallo,forIknownootherartistofthetimeandneighbourhoodwhocouldhavedoneit.2.AMagdaleneinthedesert.Thedesertisalittlecoal-cellarofanarch,containingaskullandaprofusionofpinkandwhitepaperbouquets,thetwolargestofwhichtheMagdaleneishuggingwhilesheissayingherprayers.Sheisaveryself-sufficientlady,whowemaybesurewillnotstayinthedesertadaylongerthanshecanhelp,andwhiletherewillflirtevenwiththeskullifshecanfindnothingbettertoflirtwith.Icannotthinkthatherrepentanceisasyetgenuine,andasforherprayingthereisno objectinherdoingso,forshedoesnotwantanything.3.InthenextdesertthereisaverybeautifulfigureofSt.JohntheBaptistkneelingandlookingupwards.ThisfigurepuzzlesmemorethananyotheratMontrigone;itappearstobeofthefifteenthratherthanthesixteenthcentury;ithardlyremindsmeofGaudenzio,andstilllessofanyotherValsesianartist.Itisaworkofunusualbeauty,butIcanformnoideaastoitsauthorship.IwrotetheforegoingpagesinthechurchatMontrigoneitself,havingbroughtmycamp-stoolwithme.ItwasSunday;thechurchwasopenallday,buttherewasnomasssaid,andhardlyanyonecame.Thesacristanwasakind,gentle,littleoldman,wholetmedowhateverIwanted.Hesatonthedoorstepofthemaindoor,mendingvestments,andtothisendwascuttingupafinepieceoffiguredsilkfromonetotwohundredyearsold,which,ifIcouldhavegotit,forhalfitsvalue,Ishouldmuchliketohavebought.Isatinthecoolofthechurchwhilehesatinthedoorway,whichwasstillinshadow,snippingandsnipping,andthensewing,Iamsurewithadmirableneatness.Hemadeacharmingpicture,withthearchedporticooverhishead,thegreengrassandlowchurchwallbehindhim,andthenalovelylandscapeofwoodandpastureandvalleysandhillside.EverynowandthenhewouldcomeandchirrupaboutJoachim,forhewaspainedandshockedatmyhavingsaidthathisJoachimwassomeoneelseandnotJoachimatall.IsaidIwasverysorry,butIwasafraidthefigurewasawoman.Heaskedmewhathewastodo.Hehadknownit,manandboy,thissixtyyears,andhadalwaysshownitasSt.Joachim;hehadneverheardanyonebutmyselfquestionhisascription,andcouldnotsuddenlychangehismindaboutitatthebiddingofastranger.AtthesametimehefeltitwasaveryseriousthingtocontinueshowingitastheVirgin"sfatherifitwasreallyhergrandmother.ItoldhimIthoughtthiswasacaseforhisspiritualdirector,andthatifhefeltuncomfortableaboutitheshouldconsulthisparishpriestanddoashewastold.OnleavingMontrigone,withapleasantsenseofhavingmadeacquaintancewithanewand,inmanyrespects,interestingwork,Icouldnotgetthesacristanandourdifferenceofopinionoutofmyhead.What,Iaskedmyself,arethedifferencesthatunhappilydivideChristendom,andwhatarethosethatdivideChristendomfrommodernschoolsofthought,butaseeingofJoachimsastheVirgin"sgrandmothersonalargerscale?True,wecannotcallfigures Joachimwhenweknowperfectlywellthattheyarenothingofthekind;butIregisteredavowthathenceforwardwhenIcalledJoachimstheVirgin"sgrandmothersIwouldbearmoreinmindthanIhaveperhapsalwayshithertodone,howharditisforthosewhohavebeentaughttoseethemasJoachimstothinkofthemassomethingdifferent.ItrustthatIhavenotbeenunfaithfultothisvowintheprecedingarticle.Ifthereaderdiffersfromme,letmeaskhimtorememberhowharditisforonewhohasgotafigurewellintohisheadastheVirgin"sgrandmothertoseeitasJoachim.AMEDIEVALGIRLSCHOOL{8}ThislastsummerIrevisitedOropa,nearBiella,toseewhatconnectionIcouldfindbetweentheOropachapelsandthoseatVarallo.IwilltakethisopportunityofdescribingthechapelsatOropa,andmoreespeciallytheremarkablefossil,orpetrifiedgirlschool,commonlyknownastheDimora,orSojournoftheVirginMaryintheTemple.IfIdonottaketheseworkssoseriouslyasthereadermayexpect,letmebeghim,beforeheblamesme,togotoOropaandseetheoriginalsforhimself.HavethegoodpeopleofOropathemselvestakenthemveryseriously?Areweinanatmospherewhereweneedbeatmuchpainstospeakwithbatedbreath?We,asiswellknown,lovetotakeevenourpleasuressadly;theItalianstakeeventheirsadnessallegramente,andcombinedevotionwithamusementinamannerthatweshalldowelltostudyifnotimitate.ForthisbestagreeswithwhatwegathertohavebeenthecustomofChristhimself,who,indeed,neverspeaksofausteritybuttocondemnit.IfChristianityistobealivingfaith,itmustpenetrateaman"swholelife,sothathecannomoreridhimselfofitthanhecanofhisfleshandbonesorofhisbreathing.TheChristianitythatcanbetakenupandlaiddownasifitwereawatchorabookisChristianityinnameonly.ThetrueChristiancannomorepartfromChristinmirththaninsorrow.And,afterall,whatistheessenceofChristianity?Whatisthekernelofthenut?Surelycommonsenseandcheerfulness,withunflinchingoppositiontothecharlatanismsandPharisaismsofaman"sowntimes.TheessenceofChristianityliesneitherindogma,noryetinabnormallyholylife,butinfaithinanunseenworld,indoingone"sduty,inspeaking thetruth,infindingthetrueliferatherinothersthaninoneself,andinthecertainhopethathewholoseshislifeonthesebehalfsfindsmorethanhehaslost.WhatcanAgnosticismdoagainstsuchChristianityasthis?IshouldbeshockedifanythingIhadeverwrittenorshalleverwriteshouldseemtomakelightofthesethings.IshouldbeshockedalsoifIdidnotknowhowtobeamusedwiththingsthatamiablepeopleobviouslyintendedtobeamusing.ThereadermayneedtoberemindedthatOropaisamongthesomewhatinfrequentsanctuariesatwhichtheMadonnaandinfantChristarenotwhite,butblack.IshallreturntothispeculiarityofOropalateron,butwillleaveitforthepresent.ForthegeneralcharacteristicsoftheplaceImustreferthereadertomybook,"AlpsandSanctuaries."{9}Iproposetoconfinemyselfheretothetenoradozenchapelscontaininglife-sizedterra-cottafigures,painteduptonature,thatformoneofthemainfeaturesoftheplace.Atafirstglance,perhaps,allthesechapelswillseemuninteresting;Iventuretothink,however,thatsome,ifnotmostofthem,thoughfallingagooddealshortofthebestworkatVaralloandCrea,arestillintheirownwayofconsiderableimportance.Thefirstchapelwithwhichweneedconcernourselvesisnumbered4,andshowstheConceptionoftheVirginMary.ItrepresentsSt.Anneaskneelingbeforeaterrificdragonor,astheItalianscallit,"insect,"aboutthesizeofaCrystalPalacepleiosaur.This"insect"issupposedtohavejusthaditsheadbadlycrushedbySt.Anne,whoseemstobebeggingitspardon.Thetext"Ipsaconteretcaputtuum"iswrittenoutsidethechapel.Thefigureshavenoartisticinterest.Asregardsdragonsbeingcalledinsects,thereadermayperhapsrememberthattheislandofS.Giulio,intheLagod"Orta,wasinfestedwithinsetti,whichS.Giuliodestroyed,andwhichappear,inafrescounderneaththechurchontheisland,tohavebeenmonstrousandferociousdragons;butIcannotrememberwhethertheirbodiesaredividedintothreesections,andwhetherornotheyhaveexactlysixlegs--withoutwhich,Iamtold,theycannotbetrueinsects.ThefifthchapelrepresentsthebirthoftheVirgin.Havingobtainedpermissiontogoinsideit,Ifoundthedate1715cutlargeanddeeponthebackofonefigurebeforebaking,andIimaginethatthisdatecoversthewhole.ThereisaQueenAnnefeelingthroughoutthecomposition,andifweweretoldthatthesculptorandFrancisBird,sculptorofthestatueinfrontofSt.Paul"sCathedral,hadstudiedunderthesamemaster,wecouldverywell believeit.TheapartmentinwhichtheVirginwasbornisspacious,andinstrikingcontrasttotheoneinwhichsheherselfgavebirthtotheRedeemer.St.Anneoccupiesthecentreofthecomposition,inanenormousbed;onherrightthereisaladyoftheGeorgeCruikshankstyleofbeauty,andontheleftanolderperson.BotharegesticulatingandimpressinguponSt.Annetheenormousobligationshehasjustconferreduponmankind;theyseemalsotobeimploringhernottoovertaxherstrength,but,strangetosay,theyaregivingherneitherflowersnoranythingtoeatanddrink.IknownootherbirthoftheVirgininwhichSt.Annewantssolittlekeepingup.Ihaveexplainedinmybook"ExVoto,"{10}butshouldperhapsrepeathere,thatthedistinguishingcharacteristicoftheBirthoftheVirgin,asrenderedbyValsesianartists,isthatSt.Annealwayshaseggsimmediatelyaftertheinfantisborn,andusuallyagooddealmore,whereastheMadonnaneverhasanythingtoeatordrink.TheeggsareinaccordancewithacustomthatstillprevailsamongthepeasantclassesintheValsesia,wherewomenongivingbirthtoachildgenerallyaregivenasabaglione--aneggbeatenupwithalittlewine,orrum,andsugar.EastofMilantheVirgin"smotherdoesnothaveeggs,andIsuppose,fromtheabsenceoftheeggsatOropa,thatthecustomabovereferredtodoesnotprevailintheBiellesedistrict.TheVirginalsoisinvariablywashed.St.JohntheBaptist,whenheisbornatall,whichisnotveryoften,isalsowashed;butIhavenotobservedthatSt.ElizabethhasanythingliketheattentionpaidherthatisgiventoSt.Anne.What,however,iswantinghereatOropainmeatanddrinkismadeupinCupids;theyswarmlikefliesonthewalls,clouds,cornices,andcapitalsofcolumns.Againsttheright-handwallaretwolady-helps,eachwarmingatowelataglowingfire,tobereadyagainstthebabyshouldcomeoutofitsbath;whileintheright-handforegroundwehavethelevatrice,whohavingdischargedhertask,andbeingnowsodisposed,hasremovedthebottlefromthechimney-piece,andputitnearsomebread,fruitandachicken,overwhichsheisabouttodiscusstheconfinementwithtwoothergossips.Thelevatriceisaverycharacteristicfigure,butthebestinthechapelistheoneoftheheadnurse,nearthemiddleofthecomposition;shehasnowtheinfantinfullcharge,andisshowingittoSt.Joachim,withanexpressionasthoughsheweretellinghimthatherhusbandwasamerryman.IamafraidShakespearewasdeadbeforethesculptorwasborn,otherwiseIshouldhavefeltcertainthathehaddrawn Juliet"snursefromthisfigure.AsforthelittleVirginherself,Ibelievehertobeafineboyofabouttenmonthsold.Viewingtheworkasawhole,ifIonlyfeltmoresurewhatartisticmeritreallyis,Ishouldsaythat,thoughthechapelcannotberatedveryhighlyfromsomestandpoints,thereareothersfromwhichitmaybepraisedwarmlyenough.Itisinnocentofanatomy-worship,freefromaffectationorswagger,andnotdevoidofagooddealofhomelynaivete.ItcannomorebecomparedwithTabachettiorDonatellothanHogarthcanwithRembrandtorGiovanniBellini;butasitdoesnottranscendthelimitationsofitsage,soneitherisitwantinginwhatevermeritsthatagepossessed;andthereisnoagewithoutmeritsofsomekind.Thereisnoinscriptionsayingwhomadethefigures,buttraditiongivesthemtoPietroAureggioTermine,ofBiella,commonlycalledAureggio.ThisisconfirmedbytheirstrongresemblancetothoseintheDimoraChapel,inwhichthereisaninscriptionthatnamesAureggioasthesculptor.ThesixthchapeldealswiththePresentationoftheVirginintheTemple.TheVirginisverysmall,butitmustberememberedthatsheisonlysevenyearsold,andsheisnotnearlysosmallassheisatCrea,where,thoughalife-sizedfigureisintended,theheadishardlybiggerthananapple.SheisrushingupthestepswithopenarmstowardstheHighPriest,whoisstandingatthetop.Forheritisnothingalarming;itistheHighPriestwhoappearsfrightened;butitwillallcomerightintime.TheVirginseemstobesaying,"Why,don"tyouknowme?I"mtheVirginMary."ButtheHighPriestdoesnotfeelsosureaboutthat,andwillmakefurtherinquiries.Thescene,whichcomprisessometwentyfigures,isanimatedenough,andthoughithardlykindlesenthusiasm,stilldoesnotfailtoplease.ItlooksasthoughofsomewhatolderdatethantheBirthoftheVirginchapel,andIshouldsayshowsmoresignsofdirectValsesianinfluence.InMarocco"sbookaboutOropaitisascribedtoAureggio,butIfinditdifficulttoacceptthis.Theseventh,andinmanyrespectsmostinterestingchapelatOropa,showswhatisinrealityamedievalItaliangirlschool,asnearlylikethethingitselfastheartistcouldmakeit;weareexpected,however,toseeinthisthehigh-classkindofGirtonCollegeforyounggentlewomenthatwasattachedtotheTempleatJerusalem,underthedirectionoftheChiefPriest"swife,orsomeoneofhisnearfemalerelatives.Hereallwell-to-doJewishyoungwomencompletedtheireducation,andhereaccordinglywefindtheVirgin,whoseparentsdesiredsheshouldshineineveryaccomplishment,andenjoyalltheadvantagestheiramplemeanscommanded. IhavemetwithnotracesoftheVirginduringtheyearsbetweenherPresentationintheTempleandherbecomingheadgirlatTempleCollege.Theseyears,wemaybeassured,canhardlyhavebeenotherthaneventful;butincidents,orbitsoflife,arelikelivingforms--itisonlyhereandhere,asbyrarechance,thatoneofthemgetsarrestedandfossilised;thegreaternumberdisappearlikethegreaternumberofantediluvianmolluscs,andnoonecansaywhyoneoftheseflies,asitwere,oflifeshouldgetpreservedinambermorethananother.Talk,indeed,aboutluckandcunning;whatagrainofsandasagainstahundredweightiscunning"ssharehereasagainstluck"s.Whatmomentcouldbemorehumdrumandunworthyofspecialrecordthantheonechosenbytheartistforthechapelweareconsidering?Whyshouldthisonegetarrestedinitsflightandmadeimmortalwhensomanyworthieroneshaveperished?Yetpreserveditassuredlyis;itisasthoughsomefairy"swandhadstruckthemedievalMissPinkerton,AmeliaSedley,andotherswhododutyinsteadoftheHebreworiginals.Ithaslockedthemupassleepingbeauties,whosecharmsallmaylookupon.Surelythehoursarelikethewomengrindingatthemill--theoneistakenandtheotherleft,andnonecangivethereasonmorethanhecansaywhyGallioshouldhavewonimmortalitybycaringfornoneof"thesethings."Itseemstome,moreover,thatfairieshavechangedtheirpracticenowinthematterofsleepingbeauties,muchasshopkeepershavedoneinRegentStreet.Formerlytheshopkeeperusedtoshutuphisgoodsbehindstrongshutters,sothatnoonemightseethemafterclosinghours.Nowheleaveseverythingopentotheeyeandturnsthegason.Sothefairies,whousedtolockuptheirsleepingbeautiesinimpenetrablethickets,nowleavetheminthemostpublicplacestheycanfind,asknowingthattheywilltheremostcertainlyescapenotice.LookatDeHooghe;lookat"ThePilgrim"sProgress,"orevenShakespearehimself--howlongtheysleptunawakened,thoughtheywereinbroaddaylightandonthepublicthoroughfaresallthetime.LookatTabachetti,andthemasterpiecesheleftatVarallo.Hisfiguresthereareexposedtothegazeofeverypasser-by;yetwhoheedsthem?Who,saveaveryfew,evenknowoftheirexistence?LookagainatGaudenzioFerrari,orthe"DansedesPaysans,"byHolbein,towhichIventuredtocallattentionintheUniversalReview.No,no;ifathingbeinCentralAfrica,itisthegloryofthisagetofinditout;sothefairiesthinkitsafertoconcealtheirprotegesunderashowofopenness;fortheschoolmasterismuchabroad,andthereisnohedgesothickorsothornyasthe dulnessofculture.Itmaybe,again,thateversomanyyearshence,whenMr.Darwin"searth-wormsshallhaveburiedOropahundredsoffeetdeep,someonesinkingawellormakingarailway-cuttingwillunearththesechapels,andwillbelievethemtohavebeenhouses,andtocontaintheexuviaeofthelivingformsthattenantedthem.Inthemeantime,however,letusreturntoaconsiderationofthechapelasitmaynowbeseenbyanyonewhocarestopassthatway.Theworkconsistsofaboutfortyfiguresinall,notcountingCupids,andisdividedintofourmaindivisions.First,thereisthelargepublicsitting-roomordrawing-roomoftheCollege,wheretheelderyoungladiesareengagedinvariouselegantemployments.Three,atatabletotheleft,aremakingamitrefortheBishop,asmaybeseenfromthemodelonthetable.Somearemerelyspinningorabouttospin.Oneyounglady,sittingratherapartfromtheothers,isdoinganelaboratepieceofneedleworkatatambour-framenearthewindow;othersaremakinglaceorslippers,probablyforthenewcurate;anotherisstrugglingwithaletter,orperhapsatheme,whichseemstobegivingheragooddealoftrouble,butwhich,whendone,will,Iamsure,bebeautiful.Onedearlittlegirlissimplyreading"PaulandVirginia"underneaththewindow,andissoconcealedthatIhardlythinkshecanbeseenfromtheoutsideatall,thoughfrominsidesheisdelightful;itwaswithgreatregretthatIcouldnotgetherintoanyphotograph.Onemostamiableyoungwomanhasgotachild"sheadonherlap,thechildhavingplayeditselftosleep.Allareindustriouslyandagreeablyemployedinsomewayorother;allareplump;allarenicelooking;thereisnotoneBeckySharpinthewholeschool;onthecontrary,asin"PiousOrgies,"allispious--orsub-pious--andall,ifnotgreat,isatleasteminentlyrespectable.OnefeelsthatSt.JoachimandSt.Annecouldnothavechosenaschoolmorejudiciously,andthatifonehaddaughteroneselfthisisexactlywhereonewouldwishtoplaceher.Ifthereisafaultofanykindinthearrangements,itisthattheydonotkeepcatsenough.Theplaceisoverrunwithmice,thoughwhatthesecanfindtoeatIknownot.Itoccurstomealsothattheyoungladiesmightbekeptalittlemorefreeofspiders"webs;butinallthesechapels,bats,miceandspidersaretroublesome.Offthemaindrawing-roomonthesidefacingthewindowthereisadais,whichisapproachedbyalargeraisedsemicircularstep,higherthantherestofthefloor,butlowerthanthedaisitself. Thedaisis,ofcourse,reservedforthevenerableLadyPrincipalandtheunder-mistresses,oneofwhom,bytheway,isalittlemoremondainethanmighthavebeenexpected,andisadmiringherselfinalooking-glass--unless,indeed,sheisonlylookingtoseeifthereisaspotofinkonherface.TheLadyPrincipalisseatednearatable,onwhichliesomebooksinexpensivebindings,whichIimaginetohavebeenpresentedtoherbytheparentsofpupilswhowereleavingschool.Onehasgivenheraphotographicalbum;anotheralargescrap-book,forillustrationsofallkinds;athirdvolumehasrededges,andispresumablyofadevotionalcharacter.IfIdaredventureanothercriticism,Ishouldsayitwouldbebetternottokeeptheink-potonthetopofthesebooks.TheLadyPrincipalisbeingreadtobythemonitressfortheweek,whosedutyitwastoreciteselectedpassagesfromthemostapprovedHebrewwriters;sheappearstobeagooddealoutraged,possiblyatthefaultyintonationofthereader,whichshehaslongtriedvainlytocorrect;orperhapsshehasbeenhearingoftheatrociouswayinwhichherforefathershadtreatedtheprophets,andisexplainingtotheyoungladieshowimpossibleitwouldbe,intheirownmoreenlightenedage,foraprophettofailofrecognition.Onthehalf-dais,asIsupposethelargesemicircularstepbetweenthemainroomandthedaisshouldbecalled,wefind,first,themonitressfortheweek,whostandsupwhilesherecites;andsecondly,theVirginherself,whoistheonlypupilallowedaseatsoneartotheaugustpresenceoftheLadyPrincipal.Sheisostensiblydoingapieceofembroiderywhichisstretchedonacushiononherlap,butIshouldsaythatshewaschieflyinterestedinthenearestoffourprettylittleCupids,whoarealltryingtoattractherattention,thoughtheypaynocourttoanyotheryounglady.IhavesometimeswonderedwhethertheobviouslyscandalisedgestureoftheLadyPrincipalmightnotbedirectedattheseCupids,ratherthanatanythingthemonitressmayhavebeenreading,forshewouldsurelyfindthemdisquieting.Orshemaybesaying,"Why,blessme!IdodeclaretheVirginhasgotanotherhamper,andSt.Anne"scakesarealwayssoterriblyrich!"Certainlythehamperisthere,closetotheVirgin,andtheLadyPrincipal"sactionmaybewelldirectedatit,butitmayhavebeensenttosomeotheryounglady,andbeputonthesub-daisforpublicexhibition.ItlooksasifitmighthavecomefromFortnumandMason"s,andIhalfexpectedtofindalabel,addressingitto"TheVirginMary,TempleCollege,Jerusalem,"butifevertherewasonethemicehavelongsinceeatenit.TheVirginherselfdoesnotseemtocaremuchaboutit,butifshehasafaultitisthatsheisgenerallyalittleapathetic. Whosethehamperwas,however,isapointweshallnevernowcertainlydetermine,forthebestfossilisworsethantheworstlivingform.Why,alas!wasnotMr.Edisonalivewhenthischapelwasmade?Wemightthenhavehadadailyphonographicrecitaloftheconversation,andanannouncementmightbeputoutsidethechapels,tellingusatwhathoursthefigureswouldspeak.Oneitherofsidethemainroomtherearetwoannexesopeningoutfromit;thesearereservedchieflyfortheyoungerchildren,someofwhom,Ithink,arelittleboys.Intheleft-handannex,behindtheladieswhoaremakingamitre,thereisachildwhohasgotacake,andanotherhassomefruit--possiblygiventhembytheVirgin--andathirdchildisbeggingforsomeofit.ThelightfailedsocompletelyherethatIwasnotabletophotographanyofthesefigures.ItwasadullSeptemberafternoon,andthecloudshadsettledthickroundthechapel,whichisneververylight,andisnearly4000feetabovethesea.Iwaitedtillsuchtwilightasmadeithopelessthatmoredetailcouldbegot--andaqueerghostlyplaceenoughitwastowaitin--butaftergivingtheplateanexposureoffiftyminutes,IsawIcouldgetnomore,anddesisted.Theselongphotographicexposureshavetheadvantagethatoneiscompelledtostudyaworkindetailthroughmerelackofotheremployment,andthatonecantakeone"snotesinpeacewithoutbeingtemptedtohurryoverthem;butevensoIcontinuallyfindIhaveomittedtonote,andhavecleanforgotten,muchthatIwantlateron.Intheotherannextherearealsooneortwoyoungerchildren,butitseemstohavebeensetapartforconversationandrelaxationmorethananyotherpartoftheestablishment.Ihavealreadysaidthattheworkissignedbyaninscriptioninsidethechapel,totheeffectthatthesculpturesarebyPietroAureggioTerminediBiella.Itwillbeseenthattheyoungladiesareexceedinglylikeoneanother,andthattheartistaimedatnothingmorethanafaithfulrenderingofthelifeofhisowntimes.Letusbethankfulthatheaimedatnothingless.Perhapshiswifekeptagirls"school;orhemayhavehadalargefamilyoffat,good-natureddaughters,whoselittlewayshehadstudiedattentively;atalleventstheworkisfullofspontaneousincident,andcannotfailtobecomemoreandmoreinterestingastheageitrendersfallsfartherbackintothepast.Itistoberegrettedthatmany artists,betterknownmen,havenotbeensatisfiedwiththehumblerambitionsofthismostamiableandinterestingsculptor.Ifhehasleftusnolabouredlife-studies,hehasatleastdonesomethingforuswhichwecanfindnowhereelse,whichweshouldbeverysorrynottohave,andthefidelityofwhichtoItalianlifeatthebeginningofthelastcenturywillnotbedisputed.TheeighthchapelisthatoftheSposalizio,iscertainlynotbyAureggio,andIshouldsaywasmainlybythesamesculptorwhodidthePresentationintheTemple.OngoinginsideIfoundthefigureshadcomefrommorethanonesource;someofthemareconstructedsoabsolutelyonValsesianprinciples,asregardstechnique,thatitmaybeassumedtheycamefromVarallo.Eachoftheselastfiguresisinthreepieces,thatarebakedseparatelyandcementedtogetherafterwards,hencetheyaremoreeasilytransported;nomoreclayisusedthanisabsolutelynecessary;andtheoff-sideofthefigureisneglected;theywillbefoundchiefly,ifnotentirely,atthetopofthesteps.Theotherfiguresaremoresolidlybuilt,anddonotremindmeintheirbusinessfeaturesofanythingintheValsesia.Therewasasculptor,FrancescoSala,ofLocarno(doubtlessthevillageashortdistancebelowVarallo,andnottheLocarnoontheLagoMaggiore),whomadedesignsforsomeoftheOropachapels,andsomeofwhoselettersarestillpreserved,butwhethertheValsesianfiguresinthispresentworkarebyhimornotIcannotsay.Thestatuesaretwenty-fiveinnumber;Icouldfindnodateorsignature;theworkremindsmeofMontrigone;severalofthefiguresarenotatallbad,andseveralhavehorsehairforhair,asatVarallo.Theeffectofthewholecompositionisbetterthanwehavearighttoexpectfromanysculpturedatingfromthebeginningofthelastcentury.Theninthchapel,theAnnunciation,presentsnofeatureofinterest;noryetdoesthetenth,theVisitofMarytoElizabeth.Theeleventh,theNativity,thoughratherbetter,isstillnotremarkable.Thetwelfth,thePurification,isabsurdlybad,butIdonotknowwhethertheexpressionofstrongpersonaldisliketotheVirginwhichtheHighPriestwearsisintendedasprophetic,orwhetheritistheresultofincompetence,orwhetheritismerelyasmilegonewronginthebaking.ItisamusingtofindMarocco,whohasnotbeenstrictaboutarchaeologicalaccuracyhitherto,complainherethatthereisananachronism,inasmuchassomeyoungecclesiastics aredressedastheywouldbeatpresent,andoneofthemactuallycarriesawaxcandle.Thisisnotasitshouldbe;inworkslikethoseatOropa,whereimplicitrelianceisjustlyplacedontheearnestendeavoursthathavebeensosuccessfullymadetothoroughlyandcarefullyandpatientlyensuretheaccuracyoftheminutestdetails,itisapitythatevenasingleerrorshouldhaveescapeddetection;this,however,hasmostunfortunatelyhappenedhere,andMaroccofeelsithisdutytoputusonourguard.Heexplainsthatthemistakearosefromthesculptor"shavingtakenbothhisgeneralarrangementandhisdetailsfromsomepictureofthefourteenthorfifteenthcentury,whenthevalueofthestrictesthistoricalaccuracywasnotyetsofullyunderstood.Itseemstomethatinthematterofaccuracy,priestsandmenofsciencewhetherlayorregularontheonehand,andplainpeoplewhetherlayorregularontheother,aretryingtoplayadifferentgame,andfailtounderstandoneanotherbecausetheydonotseethattheirobjectsarenotthesame.Theclericandthemanofscience(whoisonlytheclericinhislatestdevelopment)aretryingtodevelopathroatwithtwodistinctpassages--onethatshallrefusetopasseventhesmallestgnat,andanotherthatshallgracefullygulpeventhelargestcamel;whereaswemenofthestreetdesirebutonethroat,andarecontentthatthisshallswallownothingbiggerthanapony.Everyoneknowsthatthereisnosucheffectualmeansofdevelopingthepowertoswallowcamelsasincessantwatchfulnessforopportunitiesofstrainingatgnats,andthisshouldexplainmanypassagesthatpuzzleusintheworkbothofourclericsandourscientists.I,notbeingamanofscience,stillcontinuetodowhatIsaidIdidin"AlpsandSanctuaries,"andmakeitaruletoearnestlyandpatientlyandcarefullyswallowafewofthesmallestgnatsIcanfindseveraltimesaday,asthebestastringentforthethroatIknowof.ThethirteenthchapelistheMarriageFeastatCanaofGalilee.Thisisthebestchapelasaworkofart;indeed,itistheonlyonewhichcanclaimtobetakenquiteseriously.Notthatallthefiguresareverygood;thosetotheleftofthecompositionarecommonplaceenough;noraretheChristandthegiverofthefeastatallremarkable;butthetenordozenfiguresofguestsandattendantsattheright-handendoftheworkareasgoodasanythingoftheirkindcanbe,andremindmesostronglyofTabachettithatIcannotdoubttheyweredonebysomeonewhowasindirectlyinfluencedbythatgreatsculptor"swork.ItisnotlikelythatTabachettiwasalivelongafter1640,bywhichtimehewouldhave beenabouteightyyearsold;andthefoundationsofthischapelwerenotlaidtillabout1690;thestatuesareprobablyafewyearslater;theycanhardly,therefore,bebyonewhohadevenstudiedunderTabachetti;butuntilIfoundoutthedates,andwentinsidethechapeltoseethewayinwhichthefigureshadbeenconstructed,IwasinclinedtothinktheymightbebyTabachettihimself,ofwhom,indeed,theyarenotunworthy.OnexaminingthefiguresIfoundthemmoreheavilyconstructedthanTabachetti"sare,withsmallerholesfortakingoutsuperfluousclay,andmorefinishedontheoff-sides.Maroccosaysthesculptorisnotknown.Ilookedinvainforanydateorsignature.Possiblytheright-handfigures(fortheleft-handonescanhardlybebythesamehand)maybebysomesculptorfromCrea,whichisatnoverygreatdistancefromOropa,whowaspenetratedbyTabachetti"sinfluence;butwhetherasregardsactionandconcertwithoneanother,orasregardsexcellenceindetail,Idonotseehowanythingcanbemorerealistic,andyetmoreharmoniouslycomposed.Theplacingofthemusiciansinaminstrels"galleryhelpstheeffect;thesemusiciansaresixinnumber,andtheotherfiguresaretwenty-three.Underthetable,betweenChristandthegiverofthefeast,thereisacat.Thefourteenthchapel,theAssumptionoftheVirginMary,iswithoutinterest.Thefifteenth,theCoronationoftheVirgin,containsforty-sixangels,twenty-sixcherubs,fifty-sixsaints,theHolyTrinity,theMadonnaherself,andtwenty-fourinnocents,making156statuesinall.OftheseIamafraidthereisnotoneofmorethanordinarymerit;themostinterestingisahalf-lengthnudelife-studyofDisma--thegoodthief.Afterwhathadbeenpromisedhimitwasimpossibletoexcludehim,butitwasfeltthatahalf-lengthnudefigurewouldbeasmuchashecouldreasonablyexpect.Behindthesanctuarythereisasemi-ruinousandwhollyvaluelesswork,whichshowsthefindingoftheblackimage,whichisnowinthechurch,butisonlyshownongreatfestivals.ThisleadsustoaconsiderationthatIhavedelayedtillnow.TheblackimageisthecentralfeatureofOropa;itistheraisond"etreofthewholeplace,andallelseisamereincrustation,sotospeak,aroundit.Accordingtothisimage,then,whichwascarvedbySt.Lukehimself,andthanwhichnothingcanbebetterauthenticated,boththeMadonnaandtheinfantChristwereasblack asanythingcanbeconceived.Itisnotlikelythattheywereasblackastheyhavebeenpainted;nooneyeteverwassoblackasthat;yet,evenallowingforsomeexaggerationonSt.Luke"spart,theymusthavebeenexceedinglyblackiftheportraitistobeaccepted;anduncompromisinglyblacktheyaccordinglyareonmostofthewaysidechapelsformanyamilearoundOropa.Yetinthechapelswehavebeenhithertoconsidering--worksinwhich,asweknow,themostpunctiliousregardhasbeenshowntoaccuracy--boththeVirginandChristareuncompromisinglywhite.AsintheshopsundertheColonnadewheredevotionalknick-knacksaresold,youcanbuyablackchinaimageorawhiteone,whicheveryoulike;sowiththepictures--theblackandwhiteareplacedsidebyside--pagandoildanarosipuoscegliere.ItrestsnotwithhistoryorwiththeChurchtosaywhethertheMadonnaandChildwereblackorwhite,butyoumaysettleitforyourself,whicheverwayyouplease,orratheryouarerequired,withtheacquiescenceoftheChurch,toholdthattheywerebothblackandwhiteatoneandthesametime.ItcannotbemaintainedthattheChurchleavesthematterundecided,andbytoleratingbothtypesproclaimsthequestionanopenone,forsheacquiescesintheportraitbySt.Lukeasgenuine.How,then,justifythewhitenessoftheHolyFamilyinthechapels?Iftheportraitisnotknownasgenuine,whysetsuchastumbling-blockinourpathsastoshowusablackMadonnaandawhiteone,bothashistoricallyaccurate,withinafewyardsofoneanother?Iaskthisnotinmockery,butasknowingthattheChurchmusthaveanexplanationtogive,ifshewouldonlygiveit,andasmyselfunabletofindany,eventhemostfarfetched,thatcanbringwhatweseeatOropa,Loretoandelsewhereintoharmonywithmodernconscience,eitherintellectualorethical.Isee,indeed,fromaninterestingarticleintheAtlanticMonthlyforSeptember1889,entitled"TheBlackMadonnaofLoreto,"thatblackMadonnasweresofrequentinancientChristianartthat"someoftheearlywritersoftheChurchfeltobligedtoaccountforitbyexplainingthattheVirginwasofaverydarkcomplexion,asmightbeprovedbytheverseofCanticleswhichsays,"Iamblack,butcomely,OyedaughtersofJerusalem."OthersmaintainedthatshebecameblackduringhersojourninEgypt....Priests,ofto-day,saythatextremeageandexposuretothesmokeofcountlessaltar-candleshavecausedthatchangeincomplexionwhichthemorenaivefathersoftheChurchattributedtothepowerofanEgyptiansun";butthewriterruthlesslydisposesofthissuppositionbypointing outthatinnearlyalltheinstancesofblackMadonnasitisthefleshalonethatisentirelyblack,thecrimsonofthelips,thewhiteoftheeyes,andthedraperieshavingpreservedtheiroriginalcolour.Theauthoressofthearticle(Mrs.Hilliard)goesontotellusthatPausaniasmentionstwostatuesoftheblackVenus,andsaysthattheoldeststatueofCeresamongthePhigalenseswasblack.SheaddsthatMinervaAglaurus,thedaughterofCecrops,atAthens,wasblack;thatCorinthhadablackVenus,asalsotheThespians;thattheoraclesofDodonaandDelphiwerefoundedbyblackdoves,theemissariesofVenus,andthattheIsisMultimammiaintheCapitolatRomeisblack.SometimesIhaveaskedmyselfwhethertheChurchdoesnotintendtosuggestthatthewholestoryfallsoutsidethedomainofhistory,andistobeheldastheonegreatepos,ormyth,commontoallmankind;adaptablebyeachnationaccordingtoitsownseveralneeds;translatable,sotospeak,intothefactsofeachindividualnation,asthewrittenwordistranslatableintoitslanguage,butappertainingtotherealmoftheimaginationratherthantothatoftheunderstanding,andpreciousforspiritualratherthanliteraltruths.Morebriefly,IhavewonderedwhethershemaynotintendthatsuchdetailsaswhethertheVirginwaswhiteorblackareofverylittleimportanceincomparisonwiththebasingofethicsonastorythatshallappealtoblackracesaswellastowhiteones.Ifso,itistimeweweremadetounderstandthismoreclearly.IftheChurch,whetherofRomeorEngland,wouldleantosomesuchviewasthis--taintedthoughitbewithmysticism--ifwecouldseeeithergreatbranchoftheChurchmakeafrank,authoritativeattempttobringitsteachingintogreaterharmonywiththeeducatedunderstandingandconscienceofthetime,insteadoftryingtofetterthatunderstandingwithbondsthatgallitdailymoreandmoreprofoundly;thenI,forone,inviewofthedifficultyandgraciousnessofthetask,andinviewofthegreatimportanceofhistoricalcontinuity,wouldgladlysinkmuchofmyownprivateopinionastothevalueoftheChristianideal,andwouldgratefullyhelpeitherChurchorboth,accordingtothebestofmyveryfeebleability.Ontheseterms,indeed,Icouldswallownotafewcamelsmyselfcheerfullyenough.Canwe,however,seeanysignsasthougheitherRomeorEnglandwillstirhandorfoottomeetus?CananystepbepointedtoasthougheitherChurchwishedtomakethingseasierformenholdingtheopinionsheldbythelateMr.Darwin,orbyMr.HerbertSpencerand ProfessorHuxley?HowcanthosewhoacceptevolutionwithanythoroughnessacceptsuchdoctrinesastheIncarnationortheRedemptionwithanybutaquasi-allegoricalandpoeticalinterpretation?CanweconceivablyacceptthesedoctrinesintheliteralsenseinwhichtheChurchadvancesthem?AndcantheleadersoftheChurchbeblindtotheresistlessnessofthecurrentthathassetagainstthoseliteralinterpretationswhichsheseemstohugmoreandmorecloselythemorereligiouslifeisawakenedatall?Theclergymaniswantedassupplementingthedoctorandthelawyerinallcivilisedcommunities;thesethreekeepwatchononeanother,andpreventoneanotherfrombecomingtoopowerful.I,whodistrustthedoctrinaireinscienceevenmorethanthedoctrinaireinreligion,shouldviewwithdismaytheabolitionoftheChurchofEngland,asknowingthatablatantbastardsciencewouldinstantlystepintohershoes;butifsomesuchdeplorableconsummationistobeavoidedinEngland,itcanonlybethroughmoreevidentleaningonthepartofourclergytosuchaninterpretationoftheSacredHistoryasthepresenceofablackandwhiteMadonnaalmostsidebysideatOropaappearstosuggest.IfearthatintheselastparagraphsImayhavetrenchedondangerousground,butitisnotpossibletogotosuchplacesasOropawithoutaskingoneselfwhattheymeanandinvolve.AsfortheaverageItalianpilgrims,theydonotappeartogivethemattersomuchasathought.TheyloveOropa,andflocktoitinthousandsduringthesummer;thePresidentoftheAdministrationassuredmethattheylodged,afterafashion,asmanyastenthousandpilgrimsonthe15thoflastAugust.Itisastonishinghowlivingthestatuesaretothesepeople,andhowthewickedareupbraidedandthegoodapplauded.AtVarallo,sinceItookthephotographsIpublishedinmybook"ExVoto,"anangrypilgrimhassmashedthenoseofthedwarfinTabachetti"sJourneytoCalvary,fornootherreasonthaninabilitytorestrainhisindignationagainstonewhowashelpingtoinflictpainonChrist.Itistherealhairandthepaintinguptonaturethatdoesthis.HereatOropaIfoundapaperontheflooroftheSposalizioChapel,whichranasfollows:-"BythegraceofGodandthewilloftheadministrativechapterofthissanctuary,therehavecomeheretowork----,mason----,carpenter,and----plumber,allofChiavazza,onthetwenty-firstdayofJanuary1886,fullofcold(pienidifreddo)."Theywritethesetwolinestorecordtheirvisit.TheypraytheBlessedVirginthatshewillmaintainthemsafeandsoundfrom everythingequivocalthatmaybefallthem(sempresaniesalvidaogniequivocolipossaaccadere).Oh,farewell!Wereverentlysaluteallthepresentstatues,andespeciallytheBlessedVirgin,andthereader."ThroughtheUniversalReview,Isuppose,allitsreadersaretoconsiderthemselvessaluted;atanyrate,thesegoodfellows,intheeffusivenessoftheirhearts,actuallywrotetheaboveinpencil.Iwassorelytemptedtostealit,but,aftercopyingit,leftitintheChiefPriest"shandsinstead.ARTINTHEVALLEYOFSAAS{11}HavingbeentoldbyMr.Fortescue,oftheBritishMuseum,thatthereweresomechapelsatSaas-FeewhichboreanalogytothoseatVarallo,describedinmybook"ExVoto,"{12}IwenttoSaasduringthislastsummer,andventurenowtolaymyconclusionsbeforethereader.Thechapelsarefifteeninnumber,andleaduptoalargerandsingularlygracefulone,rathermorethanhalf-waybetweenSaasandSaas-Fee.ThisiscommonlybutwronglycalledthechapelofSt.Joseph,foritisdedicatedtotheVirgin,anditssituationisofsuchextremebeauty--thegreatFeeglaciersshowingthroughtheopenportico--thatitisinitselfworthapilgrimage.Itissurroundedbynoblelarchesandoverhungbyrock;infrontoftheporticothereisasmallopenspacecoveredwithgrass,andahugelarch,thestemofwhichisgirtbyarudestoneseat.Theporticoitselfcontainsseatsforworshippers,andapulpitfromwhichthepreacher"svoicecanreachthemanywhomuststandoutside.Thewallsoftheinnerchapelarehungwithvotivepictures,someofthemveryquaintandpleasing,andnotoverweightedbythosequalitiesthatareusuallydubbedbythenameofartisticmerit.Innumerablewoodenandwaxenrepresentationsofarms,legs,eyes,earsandbabiestellofthecuresthathavebeeneffectedduringtwocenturiesofdevotion,andcanhardlyfailtoawakenakindlysympathywiththelongdeadandforgottenfolkswhoplacedthemwheretheyare.Themaininterest,however,despitetheextremelovelinessoftheSt.Mary"sChapel,centresratherinthesmallandoutwardly unimportantoratories(iftheyshouldbesocalled)thatleaduptoit.ThesebeginimmediatelywiththeascentfromthelevelgroundonwhichthevillageofSaas-im-Grundisplaced,andcontainscenesinthehistoryoftheRedemption,representedbyrudebutspiritedwoodenfigures,eachabouttwofeethigh,painted,gilt,andrenderedaslife-likeinallrespectsascircumstanceswouldpermit.Thefigureshavesufferedagooddealfromneglect,andarestillnotalittlemisplaced.Withtheassistance,however,oftheRev.E.J.Selwyn,EnglishChaplainatSaas-im-Grund,Ihavebeenabletoreplacemanyofthemintheiroriginalpositions,asindicatedbythepartsofthefiguresthatareleftrough-hewnandunpainted.Theyvaryagooddealininterest,andcanbeeasilysneeredatbythosewhomakeatradeofsneering.Those,ontheotherhand,whoremainunsophisticatedbyovermuchart-culturewillfindthemfullofcharacterinspiteofnotalittlerudenessofexecution,andwillbesurprisedatcomingacrosssuchworksinaplacesoremotefromanyart-centreasSaasmusthavebeenatthetimethesechapelsweremade.ItwillbemybusinessthereforetothrowwhatlightIcanuponthequestionshowtheycametobemadeatall,andwhowastheartistwhodesignedthem.TheonlydocumentaryevidenceconsistsinachronicleofthevalleyofSaaswrittenintheearlyyearsofthiscenturybytheRev.PeterJos.Ruppen,andpublishedatSionin1851.ThisworkmakesfrequentreferencetoamanuscriptbytheRev.PeterJosephClemensLommatter,cureofSaas-Feefrom1738to1751,whichhasunfortunatelybeenlost,sothatwehavenomeansofknowinghowcloselyitwasadheredto.TheRev.Jos.Ant.Ruppen,thepresentexcellentcureofSaas-im-Grund,assuresmethatthereisnoreferencetotheSaas-Feeoratoriesinthe"Actesdel"Eglise"atSaas,whichIunderstandgoalongwayback;butIhavenotseenthesemyself.Practically,then,wehavenomoredocumentaryevidencethanistobefoundinthepublishedchronicleabovereferredto.Wetherefinditstatedthatthelargechapel,commonly,butasaboveexplained,wronglycalledSt.Joseph"s,wasbuiltin1687,andenlargedbysubscriptionin1747.Thesedatesappearonthebuildingitself,andarenodoubtaccurate.Thewriteraddsthattherewasnoactualedificeonthissitebeforetheonenowexistingwasbuilt,buttherewasamiraculouspictureoftheVirginplacedinamuralniche,beforewhichthepiousherdsmenanddevoutinhabitantsofthevalleyworshippedunderthevaultofheaven.{13}Amiraculous(ormiracle-working)picturewasalwaysmoreorless rareandimportant;thepresentsite,therefore,seemstohavebeenlongoneofpeculiarsanctity.PossiblythenameFeemaypointtostillearlierPaganmysteriesonthesamesite.Asregardsthefifteensmallchapels,thewritersaystheyillustratethefifteenmysteriesofthePsalter,andwerebuiltin1709,eachhouseholderoftheSaas-Feecontributingonechapel.HeaddsthatHeinrichAndenmatten,afterwardsabrotheroftheSocietyofJesus,wasanespecialbenefactororpromoteroftheundertaking.Oneofthechapels,theAscension(No.12oftheseries),hasthedate1709paintedonit;butthereisnodateonanyotherchapel,andthereseemsnoreasonwhythisshouldbetakenasgoverningthewholeseries.Overandabovethis,thereexistsinSaasatradition,asIwastoldimmediatelyonmyarrival,byanEnglishvisitor,thatthechapelswerebuiltinconsequenceofaflood,butIhavevainlyendeavouredtotracethisstorytoanindigenoussource.Theinternalevidenceofthewoodenfiguresthemselves--nothinganalogoustowhich,itshouldberemembered,canbefoundinthechapelof1687--pointstoamuchearlierdate.Ihavemetwithnoschoolofsculpturebelongingtotheearlypartoftheeighteenthcenturytowhichtheycanbeplausiblyassigned;andthesuppositionthattheyaretheworkofsomeunknownlocalgeniuswhowasnotleduptoandleftnosuccessorsmaybedismissed,fortheworkistooscholarlytohavecomefromanyonebutatrainedsculptor.Ireferofcoursetothosefigureswhichtheartistmustbesupposedtohaveexecutedwithhisownhand,as,forexample,thecentralfigureoftheCrucifixiongroupandthoseoftheMagdaleneandSt.John.Thegreaternumberofthefigureswereprobably,aswassuggestedtomebyMr.Ranshaw,ofLowth,executedbyalocalwoodcarverfrommodelsinclayandwaxfurnishedbytheartisthimself.Thosewhoexaminetheplayoflineinthehair,mantle,andsleeveoftheMagdaleneintheCrucifixiongroup,andcontrastitwiththegreaterpartoftheremainingdraperies,willfindlittlehesitationinconcludingthatthiswasthecase,andwillerelongreadilydistinguishthetwohandsfromwhichthefigureshavemainlycome.Isay"mainly,"becausethereisatleastoneothersculptorwhomaywellhavebelongedtotheyear1709,butwhofortunatelyhasleftuslittle.ExamplesofhisworkmayperhapsbeseeninthenearestvillainwithabighatintheFlagellationchapel,andintwocherubsintheAssumptionoftheVirgin. Wemaysay,then,withsomecertainty,thatthedesignerwasacultivatedandpractisedartist.WemayalsonotlesscertainlyconcludethathewasofFlemishorigin,forthehorsesintheJourneytoCalvaryandCrucifixionchapels,wherealonethereareanyhorsesatall,areofFlemishbreed,withnotraceoftheArabbloodadoptedbyGaudenzioatVarallo.Thecharacter,moreover,ofthevillainsisNorthern--oftheQuentinMatsys,MartinSchongauertype,ratherthanItalian;thesamesub-RubensesquefeelingwhichisapparentinmorethanonechapelatVaralloisnotlessevidenthere--especiallyintheJourneytoCalvaryandCrucifixionchapels.Therecanhardly,therefore,beadoubtthattheartistwasaFlemingwhohadworkedforseveralyearsinItaly.ItisalsoevidentthathehadTabachetti"sworkatVarallowellinhismind.Fornotonlydoesheadoptcertaindetailsofcostume(Ireferparticularlytothetreatmentofsoldiers"tunics)whicharepeculiartoTabachettiatVarallo,butwheneverhetreatsasubjectwhichTabachettihadtreatedatVarallo,asintheFlagellation,CrowningwithThorns,andJourneytoCalvarychapels,theworkatSaasisevidentlynothingbutasomewhatmodifiedabridgementofthatatVarallo.When,however,asintheAnnunciation,theNativity,theCrucifixion,andotherchapels,theworkatVaralloisbyanotherthanTabachetti,noallusionismadetoit.TheSaasartisthasTabachetti"sVaralloworkathisfinger-ends,butbetraysnoacquaintancewhateverwithGaudenzioFerrari,Gio.Ant.Paracca,orGiovanniD"Enrico.Even,moreover,whenTabachetti"sworkatVaralloisbeingmostobviouslydrawnfrom,asintheJourneytoCalvarychapel,theSaasversiondiffersmateriallyfromthatatVarallo,andisinsomerespectsanimprovementonit.Theideaofshowingotherhorsemenandfollowerscomingupfrombehind,whoseheadscanbeseenoverthecrownoftheinterposinghill,issingularlyeffectiveassuggestinganumberofothersthatareunseen,norcanIconceivethatanyonebuttheoriginaldesignerwouldfollowTabachetti"sVarallodesignwithasmuchclosenessasithasbeenfollowedhere,andyetmakesuchabrilliantlysuccessfulmodification.Thestumbling,again,ofonehorse(adetailalmosthidden,accordingtoTabachetti"swont)isatouchwhichTabachettihimselfmightadd,butwhichnoSaaswoodcarverwhowasmerelyadaptingfromareminiscenceofTabachetti"sVarallochapelwouldbelikelytointroduce.TheseconsiderationshaveconvincedmethatthedesignerofthechapelsatSaasisnoneotherthanTabachettihimself,who,ashasbeennowconclusivelyshown,wasanativeofDinant,in Belgium.TheSaaschronicler,indeed,aversthatthechapelswerenotbuilttill1709--astatementapparentlycorroboratedbyadatenowvisibleononechapel;butwemustrememberthatthechroniclerdidnotwriteuntilacenturyorsolaterthan1709,andthough,indeed,hisstatementmayhavebeentakenfromthelostearliermanuscriptof1738,weknownothingaboutthiseitheronewayortheother.Thewritermayhavegonebythestillexisting1709ontheAscensionchapel,whereasthisdatemayinfacthavereferredtoarestoration,andnottoanoriginalconstruction.Thereisnothing,asIhavesaid,inthechoiceofthechapelonwhichthedateappears,tosuggestthatitwasintendedtogoverntheothers.Ihaveexplainedthattheworkisisolatedandexotic.ItisbyoneinwhomFlemishandItalianinfluencesarealikeequallypredominant;byonewhowassaturatedwithTabachetti"sVarallowork,andwhocanimproveuponit,butoverwhomtheotherVarallosculptorshavenopower.Thestyleoftheworkisofthesixteenthandnotoftheeighteenthcentury--withafewobviousexceptionsthatsuittheyear1709exceedinglywell.Againstsuchconsiderationsasthese,astatementmadeatthebeginningofthiscenturyreferringtoacenturyearlier,andapromiscuousdateupononechapel,cancarrybutlittleweight.Ishallassume,therefore,henceforward,thatwehaveheregroupsdesignedinaplasticmaterialbyTabachetti,andreproducedinwoodbythebestlocalwood-sculptoravailable,withtheexceptionofafewfigurescutbytheartisthimself.Weask,then,atwhatperiodinhislifedidTabachettidesignthesechapels,andwhatledtohiscomingtosuchanout-of-the-wayplaceasSaasatall?Weshouldrememberthat,accordingbothtoFassolaandTorrotti(writingin1671and1686respectively),Tabachetti{14}becameinsaneabouttheyear1586orearlyin1587,afterhavingjustbeguntheSalutationchapel.Ihaveexplainedin"ExVoto"thatIdonotbelievethisstory.IhavenodoubtthatTabachettiwasdeclaredtobemad,butIbelievethistohavebeenduetoanintrigue,setonfootinordertogetaforeignartistoutoftheway,andtosecuretheMassacreoftheInnocentschapel,atthatprecisetimeundertaken,forGio.Ant.Paracca,whowasanItalian.OrhemayhavebeensacrificedinordertofacilitatethereturnoftheworkersinstuccowhomhehadsupersededontheSacroMonte.Hemayhavebeengoadedintosomeimprudencewhichwasseizeduponasa pretextforshuttinghimup;atanyrate,thefactthatwhenin1587heinheritedhisfather"spropertyatDinant,histrustee(hebeingexpresslystatedtobe"expatrie")was"datif,""dativus,"appointednotbyhimselfbutbythecourt,lendscolourtothestatementthathewasnothisownmasteratthetime;forinlaterkindreddeeds,nowatNamur,heappointshisowntrustee.Isuppose,then,thatTabachettiwasshutupinamadhouseatVaralloforaconsiderabletime,duringwhichIcanfindnotraceofhim,butthateventuallyheescapedorwasreleased.Whetherhewasafugitive,orwhetherhewasletoutfromprison,hewouldineithercase,inallreasonableprobability,turnhisfacehomeward.Ifhewasescaping,hewouldmakeimmediatelyfortheSavoyfrontier,withinwhichSaasthenlay.HewouldcrosstheBarancaaboveFobello,comingdownontoPonteGrandeintheValAnzasca.HewouldgouptheValAnzascatoMacugnaga,andovertheMonteMoro,whichwouldbringhimimmediatelytoSaas.Saas,therefore,isthenearestandmostnaturalplaceforhimtomakefor,ifhewereflyingfromVarallo,andhereIsupposehimtohavehalted.Itsohappenedthatonthe9thofSeptember,1589,therewasoneofthethreegreatoutbreaksoftheMattmarkSeethathavefromtimetotimedevastatedthevalleyofSaas.{15}ItisprobablethatthechapelsweredecideduponinconsequenceofsomegraceshownbythemiraculouspictureoftheVirgin,whichhadmitigatedadisasteroccurringsosoonaftertheanniversaryofherownNativity.Tabachetti,arrivingatthisjuncture,mayhaveofferedtoundertakethemiftheSaaspeoplewouldgivehimanasylum.Here,atanyrate,Isupposehimtohavestayedtillsometimein1590,probablythesecondhalfofit,hisdesignofeventuallyreturninghome,ifheeverentertainedit,beingtheninterruptedbyasummonstoCreanearCasale,whereIbelievehimtohaveworkedwithafewbriefinterruptionsthenceforwardforlittleifatallshortofhalfacentury,oruntilabouttheyear1640.Iadmit,however,thattheevidenceforassigninghimsolongaliferestssolelyonthesupposedidentityofthefigureknownas"IlVecchietto,"intheVaralloDescentfromtheCrosschapel,withtheportraitofTabachettihimselfintheEcceHomochapel,alsoatVarallo.IfindadditionalreasonforthinkingthechapelsowetheirorigintotheinundationofSeptember9,1589,inthefactthatthe8thofSeptemberismadeadayofpilgrimagetotheSaas-FeechapelsthroughoutthewholevalleyofSaas.Itistruethe8thof SeptemberisthefestivaloftheNativityoftheVirginMary,sothatunderanycircumstancesthiswouldbeagreatday,butthefactthatnotonlythepeopleofSaas,butthewholevalleydowntoVisp,flocktothischapelonthe8thofSeptember,pointstothebeliefthatsomespecialactofgraceonthepartoftheVirginwasvouchsafedonthisdayinconnectionwiththischapel.AbeliefthatitwasowingtotheinterventionofSt.MaryofFeethattheinundationwasnotattendedwithlossoflifewouldbeverylikelytoleadtothefoundationofaseriesofchapelsleadinguptotheplacewherehermiraculouspicturewasplaced,andtothemorespecialcelebrationofherNativityinconnectionwiththisspotthroughoutthevalleyofSaas.IhavediscussedthesubjectwiththeRev.Jos.Ant.Ruppen,andhetoldmehethoughtthefactthatthegreatfeteoftheyearinconnectionwiththeSaas-Feechapelswasonthe8thofSeptemberpointedratherstronglytothesuppositionthattherewasaconnectionbetweentheseandtherecordedfloodofSeptember9,1589.Turningtotheindividualchapelstheyareasfollows:-1.TheAnnunciation.ThetreatmentherepresentsnomoreanalogytothatofthesamesubjectatVarallothanisinevitableinthenatureofthesubject.TheAnnunciationfiguresatVarallohaveprovedtobemeredrapeddummieswithwoodenheads;Tabachetti,eventhoughhedidtheheads,whichheverylikelydid,wouldtakenointerestintheVaralloworkwiththesamesubject.TheAnnunciation,fromitsverysimplicityaswellasfromthetranscendentalnatureofthesubject,issingularlyhardtotreat,andtheworkhere,whateveritmayoncehavebeen,isnownolongerremarkable.2.TheSalutationofMarybyElizabeth.Thisgroup,again,bearsnoanalogytotheSalutationchapelatVarallo,inwhichTabachetti"ssharewassosmallthatitcannotbeconsideredasinanywayhis.Itisnottobeexpected,therefore,thattheSaaschapelshouldfollowtheVaralloone.Thefigures,fourinnumber,arepleasingandwellarranged.St.Joseph,St.Elizabeth,andSt.Zachariasarealltalkingatonce.TheVirginisalonesilent.3.TheNativityismuchdamagedandhardtosee.ThetreatmentbearsnoanalogytothatadoptedbyGaudenzioFerrariatVarallo.Thereisonepleasingyoungshepherdstandingagainstthewall,butsomefigureshavenodoubt(asinothersofthechapels)disappeared,andthosethatremainhavebeensoshiftedfromtheir originalpositionsthatverylittleideacanbeformedofwhatthegroupwaslikewhenTabachettileftit.4.ThePurification.Icanhardlysaywhythischapelshouldremindme,asitdoes,oftheCircumcisionchapelatVarallo,fortherearemorefiguresherethanspaceatVarallowillallow.Itcannotbepretendedthatanysinglefigureisofextraordinarymerit,butamongstthemtheytelltheirstorywithexcellenteffect.Two,thoseofSt.JosephandSt.Anna(?),thatdoubtlesswereoncemoreimportantfactorsinthedrama,arenowsomuchincornersnearthewindowthattheycanhardlybeseen.5.TheDisputeintheTemple.ThissubjectisnottreatedatVarallo.HereatSaasthereareonlysixdoctorsnow;whetherornotherewereoriginallymorecannotbedetermined.6.TheAgonyintheGarden.TabachettihadnochapelwiththissubjectatVarallo,andthereisnoresemblancebetweentheSaaschapelandthatbyD"Enrico.Thefiguresarenodoubtapproximatelyintheiroriginalpositions,butIhavenoconfidencethatIhaverearrangedthemcorrectly.TheywereinsuchconfusionwhenIfirstsawthemthattheRev.E.J.Selwynandmyselfdeterminedtorearrangethem.TheyhavedoubtlessbeenshiftedmorethanoncesinceTabachettileftthem.Thesleepingfiguresareallgood.St.Jamesisperhapsalittleprosaic.OneRomansoldierwhoiscomingintothegardenwithalantern,andmotioningsilencewithhishand,doesdutyfortheothersthataretofollowhim.IshouldthinkmorethanoneofthesefiguresisactuallycarvedinwoodbyTabachetti,allowancebeingmadeforthefactthathewasworkinginamaterialwithwhichhewasnotfamiliar,andwhichnosculptorofthehighestrankhaseverfoundcongenial.7.TheFlagellation.TabachettihasachapelwiththissubjectatVarallo,andtheSaasgroupisobviouslyadescentwithmodificationfromhisworkthere.ThefigureofChristissoliketheoneatVarallothatIthinkitmusthavebeencarvedbyTabachettihimself.Themanwiththehookednose,whoatVaralloisstoopingtobindhisrods,ishereupright:itwasprobablytheintentiontoemphasisehiminthesucceedingscenesaswellasthis,inthesamewayashehasbeenemphasisedatVarallo,buthisnosegotpareddowninthecuttingoflaterscenes,andcouldnoteasilybeaddedto.ThemanbindingChristtothecolumnatVaralloisrepeated(longointervallo)here,andthewholeworkisoneinspiredbythatatVarallo,thoughnosinglefigureexceptthatoftheChristis adheredtowithanyverygreatcloseness.Ithinkthenearermalefactor,withagoitre,andwearingalargeblackhat,iseitheranadditionoftheyear1709,orwasdonebythejourneymanofthelocalsculptorwhocarvedthegreaternumberofthefigures.Themanstoopingdowntobindhisrodscanhardlybebythesamehandaseitherofthetwoblack-hattedmalefactors,butitisimpossibletospeakwithcertainty.Thegeneraleffectofthechapelisexcellent,ifweconsiderthematerialinwhichitisexecuted,andtherudenessoftheaudiencetowhomitaddressesitself.8.TheCrowningwithThorns.HereagaintheinspirationisderivedfromTabachetti"sCrowningwithThornsatVarallo.TheChristsinthetwochapelsarestrikinglyalike,andthegeneraleffectisthatofaresiduaryimpressionleftinthemindofonewhohadknowntheVaralloFlagellationexceedinglywell.9.Sta.Veronica.Thisandthenextsucceedingchapelsarethemostimportantoftheseries.Tabachetti"sJourneytoCalvaryatVaralloisagainthesourcefromwhichthepresentworkwastaken,but,asIhavealreadysaid,ithasbeenmodifiedinreproduction.MountCalvaryisstillshown,asatVarallo,towardstheleft-handcornerofthework,butatSaasitismoretowardsthemiddlethanatVarallo,sothathorsemenandsoldiersmaybeseencomingupbehindit--astrokethatdeservesthenameofgeniusnonethelessforthemanifestimperfectionwithwhichithasbeencarriedintoexecution.Thereareonlythreehorsesfullyshown,andonepartlyshown.TheyarealloftheheavyFlemishtypeadoptedbyTabachettiatVarallo.ThemankickingthefallenChristandthegoitredman(withthesameteethmissing),whoaresoconspicuousintheVaralloJourneytoCalvary,reappearhere,onlythekickingmanhasmuchlessnosethanatVarallo,probablybecause(asexplained)thenosegotwhittledawayandcouldnotbewhittledbackagain.IobservethatthekindoflapelledtunicwhichTabachetti,andonlyTabachetti,adoptsatVarallo,isadoptedforthecenturioninthischapel,andindeedthroughouttheSaaschapelsthisparticularformoftunicisthemostusualforaRomansoldier.Theworkisstillaverystrikingone,notwithstandingitstranslationintowoodandthedecayintowhichithasbeenallowedtofall;norcanitfailtoimpressthevisitorwhoisfamiliarwiththisclassofartascomingfromamanofextraordinarydramaticpowerandcommandoverthealmostimpossibleartofcomposingmanyfigurestogethereffectivelyinall-roundsculpture.WhetherallthefiguresareevennowasTabachettileftthemIcannotdetermine,butMr.SelwynhasrestoredSimontheCyreniantothepositioninwhichheobviouslyoughtto stand,andbetweenuswehavegotthechapelintosomethingmorelikeorder.10.TheCrucifixion.ThissubjectwastreatedatVarallonotbyTabachettibutbyGaudenzioFerrari.ItconfirmsthereforemyopinionastothedesigneroftheSaaschapelstofindinthemnotraceoftheVaralloCrucifixion,whilethekindoftunicwhichatVaralloisonlyfoundinchapelswhereinTabachettiworkedagainappearshere.Theworkisinadeplorablestateofdecay.Mr.Selwynhasgreatlyimprovedthearrangementofthefigures,butevennowtheyarenot,Iimagine,quiteasTabachettileftthem.ThefigureofChristisgreatlybetterintechnicalexecutionthanthatofeitherofthetwothieves;thefoldsofthedraperyalonewillshowthiseventoanunpractisedeye.IdonotthinktherecanbeadoubtbutthatTabachetticutthisfigurehimself,asalsothoseoftheMagdaleneandSt.John,whostandatthefootofthecross.Thethievesarecoarselyexecuted,withnoveryobviousdistinctionbetweenthepenitentandtheimpenitentone,exceptthatthereisafiendpaintedontheceilingovertheimpenitentthief.TheonehorseintroducedintothecompositionisagainoftheheavyFlemishtypeadoptedbyTabachettiatVarallo.Thereisgreatdifferenceinthecarewithwhichthefoldsontheseveraldraperieshavebeencut,somebeingstiffandpoorenough,whileothersaredoneverysufficiently.Inspiteofsmallnessofscale,ignoblematerial,disarrangementanddecay,theworkisstillstriking.11.TheResurrection.TherebeingnochapelatVarallowithanyoftheremainingsubjectstreatedatSaas,thesculptorhasstruckoutalineforhimself.TheChristintheResurrectionChapelisacarefullymodelledfigure,andifbetterpaintedmightnotbeineffective.Threesoldiers,onesleeping,aloneremain.Therewereprobablyotherfiguresthathavebeenlost.Thesleepingsoldierisverypleasing.12.TheAscensionisnotremarkablyinteresting;theChristappearstobe,butperhapsisnot,amuchmoremodernfigurethantherest.18.TheDescentoftheHolyGhost.Someofthefiguresalongtheendwallareverygood,andwere,Ishouldimagine,cutbyTabachettihimself.Thoseagainstthetwosidewallsarenotsowellcut.14.TheAssumptionoftheVirginMary.Thetwolargecherubshereareobviouslybyalaterhand,andthesmallonesarenotgood.The figureoftheVirginherselfisunexceptionable.ThereweredoubtlessonceotherfiguresoftheApostleswhichhavedisappeared;oftheseasingleSt.Peter(?),sohiddenawayinacornernearthewindowthatitcanonlybeseenwithdifficulty,isthesolesurvivor.15.TheCoronationoftheVirginisoflaterdate,andhasprobablysupersededanearlierwork.Itcanhardlybebythedesigneroftheotherchapelsoftheseries.PerhapsTabachettihadtoleaveforCreabeforeallthechapelsatSaaswerefinished.Lastly,wehavethelargerchapeldedicatedtoSt.Mary,whichcrownstheseries.Herethereisnothingofmorethancommonartisticinterest,unlessweexceptthestonealtarmentionedinRuppen"schronicle.Thisisofcourseclassicalinstyle,andis,Ishouldthink,verygood.OncemoreImustcautionthereaderagainstexpectingtofindhighly-finishedgemsofartinthechapelsIhavebeendescribing.Awoodenfigurenotmorethantwofeethighcloggedwithmanycoatsofpaintcanhardlyclaimtobetakenveryseriously,andeventhosefewthatwerecutbyTabachettihimselfwerenotmeanttohaveattentionconcentratedonthemselvesalone.Asmerewood-carvingtheSaas-Feechapelswillnotstandcomparison,forexample,withthetriptychofunknownauthorshipintheChurchofSt.AnneatGliss,closetoBrieg.But,inthefirstplace,theworkatGlissisworthyofHolbeinhimself:Iknownowood-carvingthatcansorivettheattention;moreoveritiscolouredwithwater-colourandnotoil,sothatitistinted,notpainted;and,inthesecondplace,theGlisstriptychbelongstoadate(1519)whenartistsheldneithertimenorimpressionismasobjects,andhence,thoughgreatlybetterthantheSaas-FeechapelsasregardsacertainJapanesecuriousnessoffinishandnaiveteofliteraltranscription,itcannotevenenterthelistswiththeSaasworkasregardselananddramaticeffectiveness.Thedifferencebetweenthetwoclassesofworkismuchthatbetween,say,JohnVanEyckorMemlingandRubensorRembrandt,or,again,betweenGiovanniBelliniandTintoretto;theaimsoftheoneclassofworkareincompatiblewiththoseoftheother.Moreover,intheGlisstriptychtheintentionofthedesigneriscarriedout(whetherbyhimselforno)withadmirableskill;whereasatSaasthewisdomoftheworkmanisratherofOber-AmmergauthanoftheEgyptians,andthevoiceofthepoetisnotalittledrownedinthatofhismouthpiece.If,however,thereaderwillbearinmindthesesomewhatobviousconsiderations,andwill alsorememberthepatheticcircumstancesunderwhichthechapelsweredesigned--forTabachettiwhenhereachedSaaswasnodoubtshatteredinbodyandmindbyhisfouryears"imprisonment--hewillprobablybenotlessattractedtothemthanIobservedweremanyofthevisitorsbothatSaas-GrundandSaas-FeewithwhomIhadthepleasureofexaminingthem.IwillnowrunbrieflythroughtheotherprincipalworksintheneighbourhoodtowhichIthinkthereaderwouldbegladtohavehisattentiondirected.AtSaas-Feeitselfthemainaltar-pieceiswithoutinterest,asalsoonewithafigureofSt.Sebastian.TheVirginandChildabovetheremainingaltarare,sofarasIrememberthem,verygood,andgreatlysuperiortothesmallerfiguresofthesamealtar-piece.AtAlmagel,anhour"swalkorsoaboveSaas-Grund--avillage,thenameofwhich,likethoseoftheAlphubel,theMonteMoro,andmorethanoneotherneighbouringsite,issupposedtobeofSaracenicorigin--themainaltar-piecerepresentsafemalesaintwithfoldedarmsbeingbeheadedbyavigorousmantotheleft.Thesetwofiguresareverygood.Therearetwosomewhatinferiorelderstotheright,andthecompositioniscrownedbytheAssumptionoftheVirgin.Ilikethework,buthavenoideawhodidit.Twobishopsflankingthecompositionarenotsogood.Therearetwootheraltarsinthechurch:theright-handonehassomepleasingfigures,notsotheleft-hand.InSt.Joseph"sChapel,onthemule-roadbetweenSaas-GrundandSaas-Fee,theSt.Josephandthetwochildrenarerathernice.InthechurchesandchapelswhichIlookedintobetweenSaasandStalden,Isawmanyfloridextravagantaltar-pieces,butnothingthatimpressedmefavourably.IntheparishchurchatSaas-Grundtherearetwoaltar-pieceswhichdeserveattention.IntheoneoverthemainaltarthearrangementoftheLastSupperinadeeprecesshalf-wayupthecompositionisverypleasingandeffective;inthatabovetheright-handaltarofthetwothatstandinthebodyofthechurchthereareanumberofroundlunettes,abouteightinchesindiameter,eachcontainingasmallbutspiritedgroupofwoodenfigures.Ihavelostmynotesonthesealtar-piecesandcanonlyrememberthatthemainonehasbeenrestored,andnowbelongstotwodifferentdates,theearlierdatebeing,Ishouldimagine,about1670.Asimilartreatmentofthe LastSuppermaybefoundnearBrieginthechurchofNaters,andnodoubtthetwoaltar-piecesarebythesameman.Thereare,bytheway,twoveryambitiousaltarsoneithersidethemainarchleadingtothechanceinthechurchatNaters,ofwhichtheoneonthesouthsidecontainsobviousreminiscencesofGaudenzioFerrari"sSta.MariafrescoesatVarallo;butnoneofthefouraltar-piecesinthetwotranseptstemptedmetogivethemmuchattention.Asregardsthesmalleraltar-pieceatSaas-Grund,analogousworkmaybefoundatCravagliana,half-waybetweenVaralloandFobello,butthislasthassufferedthroughtheinveteratehabitwhichItalianshaveofshowingtheirhatredtowardstheenemiesofChristbymutilatingthefiguresthatrepresentthem.WhethertheSaasworkisbyaValsesianartistwhocameovertoSwitzerland,orwhethertheCravaglianaworkisbyaSwisswhohadcometoItaly,IcannotsaywithoutfurtherconsiderationandcloserexaminationthanIhavebeenabletogive.Thealtar-piecesofMairengo,Chiggiogna,and,Iamtold,Lavertezzo,allintheCantonTicino,arebyaSwissorGermanartistwhohasmigratedsouthward;butthereversemigrationwasequallycommon.Beingintheneighbourhood,andwishingtoassuremyselfwhetherthesculptoroftheSaas-Feechapelshadorhadnotcomelowerdownthevalley,IexaminedeverychurchandvillagewhichIcouldhearofascontaininganythingthatmightthrowlightonthispoint.IwasthusledtoVispertimenen,avillagesomethreehoursaboveeitherVisporStalden.Itstandsveryhigh,andisanalmostuntouchedexampleofamedievalvillage.Thealtar-pieceofthemainchurchisevenmorefloridlyambitiousinitsabundanceofcarvingandgildingthanthemanyotherambitiousaltar-pieceswithwhichtheCantonValaisabounds.TheApostlesarereceivingtheHolyGhostonthefirststoreyofthecomposition,andtheycertainlyarereceivingitwithanoverjoyedalacrityandhilariousecstasyofallegriaspiritualewhichitwouldnotbeeasytosurpass.Abovethevillage,reachingalmosttothelimitsbeyondwhichthereisnocultivation,therestandsaseriesofchapelslikethoseIhavebeendescribingatSaas-Fee,onlymuchlargerandmoreambitious.Theyaretwelveinnumber,includingthechurchthatcrownstheseries.Thefigurestheycontainareofwood(soIwasassured,butIdidnotgoinsidethechapels):theyarelife-size,andinsomechapelsthereareasmanyasadozenfigures.Ishouldthinktheybelongedtothelaterhalfofthelastcentury,andhere,onewouldsay,sculpturetouchestheground;atleast,itisnoteasytoseehowcheapexaggerationcansinkanartmoredeeply.Theonlythingsthatatallpleasedmewereasmilingdonkeyandanecstaticcowin theNativitychapel.Thosewhoarenotalluredbytheprospectofseeingperhapstheveryworstthatcanbedoneinitsownline,neednotbeatthepainsofclimbinguptoVispertimenen.Those,ontheotherhand,whomayfindthissufficientinducementwillnotbedisappointed,andtheywillenjoymagnificentviewsoftheWeisshornandthemountainsneartheDom.IhavealreadyreferredtothetriptychatGliss.ThisisfiguredinWolf"sworkonChamonixandtheCantonValais,butalargerandclearerreproductionofsuchanextraordinaryworkisgreatlytobedesired.Thesmallwoodenstatuesabovethetriptych,asalsothoseaboveitsmoderncompanioninthesouthtransept,arenotlessadmirablethanthetriptychitself.Iknowofnootherlikeworkinwood,andhavenocluewhateverastowhotheauthorcanhavebeenbeyondthefactthattheworkispurelyGermanandeminentlyHolbeinesqueincharacter.IwastoldofsomechapelsatRarogne,fiveorsixmileslowerdownthevalleythanVisp.Iexaminedthem,andfoundtheyhadbeenstrippedoftheirfigures.Thefewthatremainedsatisfiedmethatwehavehadnoloss.AboveBriegtherearetwootherlikeseriesofchapels.Iexaminedthehigherandmorepromisingofthetwo,butfoundnotonesinglefigureleft.Iwastoldbymydriverthattheotherseries,closetothePontNapoleonontheSimplonroad,hadbeenalsostrippedofitsfigures,and,therebeingaheavystormatthetime,havetakenhiswordforitthatthiswasso.THOUGHTANDLANGUAGE{16}Threewell-knownwriters,ProfessorMaxMuller,ProfessorMivart,andMr.AlfredRusselWallacehavelatelymaintainedthatthoughthetheoryofdescentwithmodificationaccountsforthedevelopmentofallvegetablelife,andofallanimalslowerthanman,yetthatmancannot--notatleastinrespectofthewholeofhisnature--beheldtohavedescendedfromanyanimallowerthanhimself,inasmuchasnonelowerthanmanpossesseseventhegermsoflanguage.Reason,itiscontended--moreespeciallybyProfessorMaxMullerinhis"ScienceofThought,"towhichIproposeconfiningourattentionthisevening--issoinseparablyconnectedwithlanguage,thatthetwoareinpointoffactidentical;henceitisarguedthat,asthe loweranimalshavenogermsoflanguage,theycanhavenogermsofreason,andtheinferenceisdrawnthatmancannotbeconceivedashavingderivedhisownreasoningpowersandcommandoflanguagethroughdescentfrombeingsinwhichnogermofeithercanbefound.Therelationsthereforebetweenthoughtandlanguage,interestinginthemselves,acquireadditionalimportancefromthefactoftheirhavingbecomethebattle-groundbetweenthosewhosaythatthetheoryofdescentbreaksdownwithman,andthosewhomaintainthatwearedescendedfromsomeape-likeancestorlongsinceextinct.Thecontentionofthosewhorefusetoadmitmanunreservedlyintotheschemeofevolutioniscomparativelyrecent.Thegreatpropoundersofevolution,Buffon,ErasmusDarwinandLamarck--nottomentionascoreofotherswhowroteatthecloseofthelastandearlypartofthispresentcentury--hadnoqualmsaboutadmittingmanintotheirsystem.TheyhavebeenfollowedinthisrespectbythelateMr.CharlesDarwin,andbythegreatlymoreinfluentialpartofourmodernbiologists,whoholdthatwhateverlossofdignitywemayincurthroughbeingprovedtobeofhumbleorigin,iscompensatedbythecreditwemayclaimforhavingadvancedourselvestosuchahighpitchofcivilisation;thisbidsusexpectstillfurtherprogress,andglorifiesourdescendantsmorethanitabasesourancestors.Buttowhicheverviewwemayinclineonsentimentalgroundsthefactremainsthat,whileCharlesDarwindeclaredlanguagetoformnoimpassablebarrierbetweenmanandtheloweranimals,ProfessorMaxMullercallsittheRubiconwhichnobrutedarecross,anddeduceshencetheconclusionthatmancannothavedescendedfromanunknownbutcertainlyspeechlessape.ItmayperhapsbeexpectedthatIshouldbeginalectureontherelationsbetweenthoughtandlanguagewithsomedefinitionofboththesethings;butthought,asSirWilliamGrovesaidofmotion,isaphenomenon"soobvioustosimpleapprehension,thattodefineitwouldmakeitmoreobscure."{17}Definitionsareusefulwherethingsarenewtous,buttheyaresuperfluousaboutthosethatarealreadyfamiliar,andmischievous,sofarastheyarepossibleatall,inrespectofallthosethingsthatentersoprofoundlyandintimatelyintoourbeingthatinthemwemusteitherliveorbearnolife.Tovivisectthemorevitalprocessesofthoughtistosuspend,ifnottodestroythem;forthoughtcanthinkabouteverythingmorehealthilyandeasilythanaboutitself.Itislikeitsinstrumentthebrain,whichknowsnothingofanyinjuriesinflicteduponitself.Asregardswhatisnewtous,adefinitionwillsometimesdiluteadifficulty,andhelpustoswallowthat whichmightchokeusundiluted;buttodefinewhenwehaveoncewellswallowedistounsettle,ratherthansettle,ourdigestion.Definitions,again,arelikestepscutinasteepslopeofice,orshellsthrownontoagreasypavement;theygiveusfoothold,andenableustoadvance,butwhenweareatourjourney"sendwewantthemnolonger.Again,theyareusefulasmentalfluxes,andashelpingustofusenewideaswithourolderones.Theypresentuswithsometagsandendsofideasthatwehavealreadymastered,ontowhichwecanhitchournewones;buttomultiplytheminrespectofsuchamatterasthought,islikescratchingthebiteofagnat;themorewescratchthemorewewanttoscratch;themorewedefinethemoreweshallhavetogoondefiningthewordswehaveusedinourdefinitions,andshallendbysettingupaseriousmentalrawintheplaceofasmalluneasinessthatwasafterallquiteendurable.Weknowtoowellwhatthoughtis,tobeabletoknowthatweknowit,andIampersuadedthereisnooneinthisroombutunderstandswhatismeantbythoughtandthinkingwellenoughforallthepurposesofthisdiscussion.Whoeverdoesnotknowthiswithoutwordswillnotlearnitforallthewordsanddefinitionsthatarelaidbeforehim.Themore,indeed,hehears,themoreconfusedhewillbecome.Ishall,therefore,merelypremisethatIusetheword"thought"inthesamesenseasthatinwhichitisgenerallyusedbypeoplewhosaythattheythinkthisorthat.Atanyrate,itwillbeenoughifItakeProfessorMaxMuller"sowndefinition,andsaythatitsessenceconsistsinabringingtogetherofmentalimagesandideaswithdeductionstherefrom,andwithacorrespondingpowerofdetachingthemfromoneanother.Hobbes,theProfessortellsus,maintainedthislongago,whenhesaidthatallourthinkingconsistsofadditionandsubtraction--thatistosay,inbringingideastogether,andindetachingthemfromoneanother.Turningfromthoughttolanguage,weobservethatthewordisderivedfromtheFrenchlangue,ortongue.Strictly,therefore,itmeanstonguage.This,however,takesaccountofbutaverysmallpartoftheideasthatunderlietheword.Itdoes,indeed,seizeafamiliarandimportantdetailofeverydayspeech,thoughitmaybedoubtedwhetherthetonguehasmoretodowithspeakingthanlips,teethandthroathave,butitmakesnoattemptatgraspingandexpressingtheessentialcharacteristicofspeech.Anythingdonewiththetongue,eventhoughitinvolvenospeakingatall,istonguage;eatingorangesisasmuchtonguageasspeechis.Theword,therefore,thoughittellsusinparthowspeechiseffected,revealsnothingofthatulteriormeaningwhichisneverthelessinseparablefromanyrightuseofthewordseither"speech"or "language."Itpresentsuswithwhatisindeedaveryfrequentadjunctofconversation,buttheuseofwrittencharacters,orthefinger-speechofdeafmutes,isenoughtoshowthattheword"language"omitsallreferencetothemostessentialcharacteristicsoftheidea,whichinpracticeitneverthelessverysufficientlypresentstous.Ihopepresentlytomakeitcleartoyouhowandwhyitshoulddoso.Thewordisincompleteinthefirstplace,becauseitomitsallreferencetotheideaswhichwords,speechorlanguageareintendedtoconvey,andtherecanbenotruewordwithoutitsactuallyorpotentiallyconveyinganidea.Secondly,itmakesnoallusiontothepersonorpersonstowhomtheideasaretobeconveyed.Languageisnotlanguageunlessitnotonlyexpressesfairlydefiniteandcoherentideas,butunlessitalsoconveystheseideastosomeotherlivingintelligentbeing,eithermanorbrute,thatcanunderstandthem.Wemayspeaktoadogorhorse,butnottoastone.Ifwemakepretenceofdoingsoweareinrealityonlytalkingtoourselves.Thepersonoranimalspokentoishalfthebattle--ahalf,moreover,whichisessentialtotherebeinganybattleatall.Ittakestwopeopletosayathing--asayeeaswellasasayer.Theoneisasessentialtoanytruesayingastheother.A.mayhavespoken,butifB.hasnotheard,therehasbeennothingsaid,andhemustspeakagain.True,thebeliefonA."spartthathehadabonafidesayeeinB.,saveshisspeechquahim,butithasbeenbarrenandleftnofertileissue.Ithasfailedtofulfiltheconditionsoftruespeech,whichinvolvenotonlythatA.shouldspeak,butalsothatB.shouldhear.True,again,weoftenspeakofloose,incoherent,indefinitelanguage;butbydoingsoweimply,andrightly,thatwearecallingthatlanguagewhichisnottruelanguageatall.People,again,sometimestalktothemselveswithoutintendingthatanyotherpersonshouldhearthem,butthisisnotwelldone,anddoesharmtothosewhopractiseit.Itisabnormal,whereasourconcerniswithnormalandessentialcharacteristics;wemay,therefore,neglectbothdeliriousbabblings,andthecasesinwhichapersonisregardinghimorherself,asitwere,fromoutside,andtreatinghimselfasthoughheweresomeoneelse.Inquiring,then,whataretheessentials,thepresenceofwhichconstituteslanguage,whiletheirabsencenegativesitaltogether,wefindthatProfessorMaxMullerrestrictsthemtotheuseofgrammaticalarticulatewordsthatwecanwriteorspeak,anddeniesthatanythingcanbecalledlanguageunlessitcanbewrittenorspokeninarticulatewordsandsentences.Healsodeniesthatwecanthinkatallunlesswedosoinwords;thatistosay,in sentenceswithverbsandnouns.Indeedhegoessofarastosayuponhistitle-pagethattherecanbenoreason--whichIimaginecomestomuchthesamethingasthought--withoutlanguage,andnolanguagewithoutreason.AgainsttheassertionthattherecanbenotruelanguagewithoutreasonIhavenothingtosay.ButwhentheProfessorsaysthattherecanbenoreason,orthought,withoutlanguage,hisopponentscontend,asitseemstome,withgreaterforce,thatthought,thoughinfinitelyaided,extendedandrendereddefinitethroughtheinventionofwords,neverthelessexistedsofullyastodeservenoothernamethousands,ifnotmillionsofyearsbeforewordshadenteredintoitatall.Words,theysay,areacomparativelyrecentinvention,forthefullerexpressionofsomethingthatwasalreadyinexistence.Children,theyurge,areoftenevidentlythinkingandreasoning,thoughtheycanneitherthinknorspeakinwords.Ifyouaskmetodefinereason,Ianswerasbeforethatthiscannomorebedonethanthought,truthormotioncanbedefined.Whohasansweredthequestion,"Whatistruth?"MancannotseeGodandlive.Wecannotgosofarbackuponourselvesastoundermineourownfoundations;ifwetrytodowetoppleover,andlosethatveryreasonaboutwhichwevainlytrytoreason.Ifweletthefoundationsbe,weknowwellenoughthattheyarethere,andwecanbuildupontheminallsecurity.Wecannot,then,definereasonnorcrib,cabinandconfineitwithinathus-far-shalt-thou-go-and-no-further.Whocandefineheatorcold,ornightorday?Yet,solongasweholdfastbycurrentconsent,ourchancesoferrorforwantofbetterdefinitionaresosmallthatnosensiblepersonwillconsiderthem.Inlikemanner,ifweholdbycurrentconsentorcommonsense,whichisthesamething,aboutreason,weshallnotfindthewantofanacademicdefinitionhinderusfromareasonableconclusion.Whatnurseormotherwilldoubtthatherinfantchildcanreasonwithinthelimitsofitsownexperience,longbeforeitcanformulateitsreasoninarticulatelywordedthought?Ifthedevelopmentofanygivenanimalis,asouropponentsthemselvesadmit,anepitomeofthehistoryofitswholeanteriordevelopment,surelythefactthatspeechisanaccomplishmentacquiredafterbirthsoartificiallythatchildrenwhohavegonewildinthewoodsloseitiftheyhaveeverlearnedit,pointstotheconclusionthatman"sancestorsonlylearnedtoexpressthemselvesinarticulatelanguageatacomparativelyrecentperiod.Grantedthattheylearntothinkandreasoncontinuallythemoreandmorefullyforhavingdoneso,will commonsensepermitustosupposethattheycouldneitherthinknorreasonatalltilltheycouldconveytheirideasinwords?Iwillreturnlatertothereasonoftheloweranimals,butwillnowdealwiththequestionwhatitisthatconstituteslanguageinthemostcomprehensivesensethatcanbeproperlyattachedtoit.Ihavesaidalreadythatlanguagetobelanguageatallmustnotonlyconveyfairlydefinitecoherentideas,butmustalsoconveythemtoanotherlivingbeing.Whenevertwolivingbeingshaveconveyedandreceivedideas,therehasbeenlanguage,whetherlooksorgesturesorwordsspokenorwrittenhavebeenthevehiclebymeansofwhichtheideashavetravelled.Someideascrawl,somerun,somefly;andinthiscasewordsarethewingstheyflywith,buttheyareonlythewingsofthoughtorofideas,theyarenotthethoughtorideasthemselves,noryet,asProfessorMaxMullerwouldhaveit,inseparablyconnectedwiththem.LastsummerIwasataninninSicily,wheretherewasadeafanddumbwaiter;hehadbeenbornso,andcouldneitherwritenorread.Whathadhetodowithwordsorwordswithhim?Arewetosay,then,thatthismostactive,amiableandintelligentfellowcouldneitherthinknorreason?OnedayIhadhadmydinnerandhadleftthehotel.Afriendcamein,andthewaitersawhimlookformeintheplaceIgenerallyoccupied.Heinstantlycameuptomyfriend,andmovedhistwoforefingersinawaythatsuggestedtwopeoplegoingabouttogether,thismeant"yourfriend";hethenmovedhisforefingershorizontallyacrosshiseyes,thismeant,"whowearsdividedspectacles";hemadetwofiercemarksoverthesocketsofhiseyes,thismeant,"withtheheavyeyebrows";hepulledhischin,andthentouchedhiswhiteshirt,tosaythatmybeardwaswhite.Havingthusidentifiedmeasafriendofthepersonhewasspeakingto,andashavingawhitebeard,heavyeyebrows,andwearingdividedspectacles,hemadeamunchingmovementwithhisjawstosaythatIhadhadmydinner;andfinally,bymakingtwofingersimitatewalkingonthetable,heexplainedthatIhadgoneaway.Myfriend,however,wantedtoknowhowlongIhadbeengone,sohepulledouthiswatchandlookedinquiringly.Themanatonceslappedhimselfontheback,andheldupthefivefingersofonehand,tosayitwasfiveminutesago.Allthiswasdoneasrapidlyasthoughithadbeensaidinwords;andmyfriend,whoknewthemanwell,understoodwithoutamoment"shesitation.Arewetosaythatthismanhadnothought,norreason,norlanguage,merelybecausehehadnotasinglewordofanykindinhishead,whichIamassuredhehadnot;for,asIhavesaid,hecouldnotspeakwithhisfingers?Isitpossibletodenythatadialogue--anintelligentconversation--hadpassedbetweenthetwomen?And ifconversation,thensurelyitistechnicalandpedantictodenythatalltheessentialelementsoflanguagewerepresent.Thesignsandtokensusedbythispoorfellowwereasrudeaninstrumentofexpression,incomparisonwithordinarylanguage,asgoingonone"shandsandkneesisincomparisonwithwalking,oraswalkingcomparedwithgoingbytrain;butitisasgreatanabuseofwordstolimittheword"language"tomerewordswrittenorspoken,asitwouldbetolimittheideaofalocomotivetoarailwayengine.Thismayindeedpassinordinaryconversation,wheresomuchmustbesuppressediftalkistobegotthroughatall,butitisintolerablewhenweareinquiringabouttherelationsbetweenthoughtandwords.Todosoistoletwordsbecomeasitwerethemastersofthought,onthegroundthatthefactoftheirbeingonlyitsservantsandappendagesissoobviousthatitisgenerallyallowedtogowithoutsaying.IfallthatProfessorMaxMullermeanstosayis,thatnoanimalbutmancommandsanarticulatelanguage,withverbsandnouns,oriseverlikelytocommandone(andIquestionwhetherinrealityhemeansmuchmorethanthis),noonewilldifferfromhim.Nodogorelephanthasonewordforbread,anotherformeat,andanotherforwater.Yet,whenwewatchacatordogdreaming,astheyoftenevidentlydo,canwedoubtthatthedreamisaccompaniedbyamentalimageofthethingthatisdreamedof,muchlikewhatweexperienceindreamsourselves,andmuchdoubtlesslikethementalimageswhichmusthavepassedthroughthemindofmydeafanddumbwaiter?Iftheyhavementalimagesinsleep,canwedoubtthatwaking,also,theypicturethingsbeforetheirmind"seyes,andseethemmuchaswedo--toovaguelyindeedtoadmitofourthinkingthatweactuallyseetheobjectsthemselves,butdefinitelyenoughforustobeabletorecognisetheideaorobjectofwhichwearethinking,andtoconnectitwithanyotheridea,object,orsignthatwemaythinkappropriate?Herewehavetouchedonthesecondessentialelementoflanguage.Welaiditdown,thatitsessencelayinthecommunicationofanideafromoneintelligentbeingtoanother;butnoideascanbecommunicatedatallexceptbytheaidofconventionstowhichbothpartieshaveagreedtoattachanidenticalmeaning.Theagreementmaybeveryinformal,andmaypasssounconsciouslyfromonegenerationtoanotherthatitsexistencecanonlyberecognisedbytheaidofmuchintrospection,butitwillbealwaysthere.Asayer,asayee,andaconvention,nomatterwhat,agreeduponbetweenthemasinseparablyattachedtotheideawhichitis intendedtoconvey--thesecomprisealltheessentialsoflanguage.Wherethesearepresentthereislanguage;whereanyofthemarewantingthereisnolanguage.Itisnotnecessaryforthesayeetobeabletospeakandbecomeasayer.Ifhecomprehendsthesayer--thatistosay,ifheattachesthesamemeaningtoacertainsymbolasthesayerdoes--ifheisapartytothebargainwherebyitisagreeduponbyboththatanygivensymbolshallbeattachedinvariablytoacertainidea,sothatinvirtueoftheprincipleofassociatedideasthesymbolshallneverbepresentwithoutimmediatelycarryingtheideaalongwithit,thenalltheessentialsoflanguagearecompliedwith,andtherehasbeentruespeechthoughneverawordwasspoken.Theloweranimals,therefore,manyofthem,possessapartofourownlanguage,thoughtheycannotspeakit,andhencedonotpossessitsofullyaswedo.Theycannotsay"bread,""meat,"or"water,"buttherearemanythatreadilylearnwhatideastheyoughttoattachtothesesymbolswhentheyarepresentedtothem.Itisidletosaythatacatdoesnotknowwhatthecat"s-meatmanmeanswhenhesays"meat."Thecatknowsjustaswell,neitherbetternorworsethanthecat"s-meatmandoes,andagreatdealbetterthanImyselfunderstandmuchthatissaidbysomeverycleverpeopleatOxfordorCambridge.Thereismoretrueemploymentoflanguage,morebonafidecurrencyofspeech,betweenasayerandasayeewhounderstandeachother,thoughneitherofthemcanspeakaword,thanbetweenasayerwhocanspeakwiththetonguesofmenandofangelswithoutbeingclearabouthisownmeaning,andasayeewhocanhimselfutterthesamewords,butwhoisonlyinimperfectagreementwiththesayerastotheideaswhichthewordsorsymbolsthatheuttersareintendedtoconvey.Thenatureofthesymbolscountsfornothing;thegistofthematterisintheperfectharmonybetweensayerandsayeeastothesignificancethatistobeassociatedwiththem.ProfessorMaxMulleradmitsthatwesharewiththeloweranimalswhathecallsanemotionallanguage,andcontinuesthatwemaycalltheirinterjectionsandimitationslanguageifwelike,aswespeakofthelanguageoftheeyesortheeloquenceofmutenature,buthewarnsusagainstmistakingmetaphorforfact.Itisindeedmeremetaphortotalkoftheeloquenceofmutenature,orthelanguageofwindsandwaves.Thereisnointercommunionofmindwithmindbymeansofacovenantedsymbol;butitisonlyanapparent,notareal,metaphortosaythattwopairsofeyeshavespokenwhentheyhavesignalledtooneanothersomethingwhichtheybothunderstand. Aschoolboyathomefortheholidayswantsanotherplateofpudding,anddoesnotliketoapplyofficiallyformore.Hecatchestheservant"seyeandlooksatthepudding;theservantunderstands,takeshisplatewithoutaword,andgetshimsome.Isitmetaphortosaythattheboyaskedtheservanttodothis,orisitnotratherpedantrytoinsistontheletterofabondanddenyitsspirit,bydenyingthatlanguagepassed,onthegroundthatthesymbolscovenanteduponandassentedtobybothwereutteredandreceivedbyeyesandnotbymouthandears?Whentheladydranktothegentlemanonlywithhereyes,andhepledgedwithhis,wastherenoconversationbecausetherewasneithernounnorverb?Eyesareverbs,andglassesofwinearegoodnounsenoughasbetweenthosewhounderstandoneanother.Whethertheideasunderlyingthemareexpressedandconveyedbyeyeageorbytonguageisadetailthatmattersnothing.Buteverythingwesayismetaphoricalifwechoosetobecaptious.Scratchthesimplestexpressions,andyouwillfindthemetaphor.Writtenwordsarehandage,inkageandpaperage;itisonlybymetaphor,orsubstitutionandtranspositionofideas,thatwecancallthemlanguage.Theyareindeedpotentiallanguage,andthesymbolsemployedpresupposenouns,verbs,andtheotherpartsofspeech;butforthemostpartitisinwhatwereadbetweenthelinesthattheprofoundermeaningofanyletterisconveyed.Therearewordsunwrittenanduntranslatableintoanynounsthatareneverthelessfeltasabove,aboutandunderneaththegrossmaterialsymbolsthatliescrawleduponthepaper;andthedeeperthefeelingwithwhichanythingiswrittenthemorepregnantwillitbeofmeaningwhichcanbeconveyedsecurelyenough,butwhichlosesratherthangainsifitissqueezedintoasentence,andlimitedbythepartsofspeech.Thelanguageisnotinthewordsbutintheheart-to-heartnessofthething,whichishelpedbywords,butisnearerandfartherthanthey.Acorrespondentwrotetomeonce,manyyearsago,"IfIcouldthinktoyouwithoutwordsyouwouldunderstandmebetter."Butsurelyinthishewasthinkingtome,andwithoutwords,andIdidunderstandhimbetter...SoitisnotbythewordsthatIamtoopresumptuouslyventuringtospeakto-nightthatyouropinionswillbeformedormodified.Theywillbeformedormodified,ifeither,bysomethingthatyouwillfeel,butwhichIhavenotspoken,tothefullasmuchasbyanythingthatIhaveactuallyuttered.Youmaysaythatthisbordersonmysticism.Perhapsitdoes,buttheirreallyissomemysticisminnature.Toreturn,however,toterrafirma.IbelieveIamrightinsaying thattheessenceoflanguageliesintheintentionalconveyanceofideasfromonelivingbeingtoanotherthroughtheinstrumentalityofarbitrarytokensorsymbolsagreedupon,andunderstoodbybothasbeingassociatedwiththeparticularideasinquestion.Thenatureofthesymbolchosenisamatterofindifference;itmaybeanythingthatappealstohumansenses,andisnottoohotortooheavy;theessenceofthematterliesinamutualcovenantthatwhateveritisitshallstandinvariablyforthesamething,ornearlyso.Weshallseethismoreeasilyifweobservethedifferencesbetweenwrittenandspokenlanguage.Thewrittenword"stone,"andthespokenword,areeachofthemsymbolsarrivedatinthefirstinstancearbitrarily.Theyareneitherofthemmoreliketheotherthantheyaretotheideaofastonewhichrisesbeforeourminds,whenweeitherseeorheartheword,orthanthisideaagainisliketheactualstoneitself,butneverthelessthespokensymbolandthewrittenoneeachalikeconveywithcertaintythecombinationofideastowhichwehaveagreedtoattachthem.Thewrittensymbolisformedwiththehand,appealstotheeye,leavesamaterialtraceaslongaspaperandinklast,cantravelasfaraspaperandinkcantravel,andcanbeimprintedoneyeaftereyepracticallyadinfinitumbothasregardstimeandspace.Thespokensymbolisformedbymeansofvariousorgansinoraboutthemouth,appealstotheear,nottheeye,perishesinstantlywithoutmaterialtrace,andifitlivesatalldoessoonlyinthemindsofthosewhoheardit.Therangeofitsactionisnowiderthanthatwithinwhichavoicecanbeheard;andeverytimeafreshimpressioniswantedthetypemustbesetupanew.Thewrittensymbolextendsinfinitely,asregardstimeandspace,therangewithinwhichonemindcancommunicatewithanother;itgivesthewriter"smindalifelimitedbythedurationofink,paper,andreaders,asagainstthatofhisfleshandbloodbody.Ontheotherhand,ittakeslongertolearntherulessoastobeabletoapplythemwitheaseandsecurity,andeventhentheycannotbeappliedsoquicklyandeasilyasthoseattachingtospokensymbols.Moreover,thespokensymboladmitsofahundredquickandsubtleadjunctsbywayofaction,toneandexpression,sothatnoonewillusewrittensymbolsunlesseitherforthespecialadvantagesofpermanenceandtravellingpower,orbecauseheisincapacitatedfromusingspokenones.This,however,ishardlytothepoint;thepoint isthatthesetwoconventionalcombinationsofsymbols,thatareasunlikeoneanotherastheHallelujahChorusistoSt.Paul"sCathedral,aretheoneasmuchlanguageastheother;andwethereforeinquirewhatthisverypatentfactrevealstousaboutthemoreessentialcharacteristicsoflanguageitself.Whatisthecommonbondthatunitesthesetwoclassesofsymbolsthatseematfirstsighttohavenothingincommon,andmakestheoneraisetheideaoflanguageinourmindsasreadilyastheother?Thebondliesinthefactthatbothareasetofconventionaltokensorsymbols,agreeduponbetweenthepartiestowhomtheyappealasbeingattachedinvariablytothesameideas,andbecausetheyarebeingmadeasameansofcommunionbetweenonemindandanother,--foramemorandummadeforaperson"sownlateruseisnothingbutacommunicationfromanearliermindtoalaterandmodifiedone;itisthereforeinrealityacommunicationfromonemindtoanotherasmuchasthoughithadbeenaddressedtoanotherperson.Wesee,therefore,thatthenatureoftheoutwardandvisiblesigntowhichtheinwardandspiritualideaoflanguageisattacheddoesnotmatter.Itmaybethefiringofagun;itmaybeanoldsemaphoretelegraph;itmaybethemovementsofaneedle;alook,agesture,thebreakingofatwigbyanIndiantotellsomeonethathehaspassedthatway:atwigbrokendesignedlywiththisendinviewisaletteraddressedtowhomsoeveritmayconcern,asmuchasthoughithadbeenwrittenoutinfullonbarkorpaper.Itdoesnotmatteronestrawwhatitis,provideditisagreeduponinconcert,andstuckto.Justasthelowestformsoflifeneverthelesspresentuswithalltheessentialcharacteristicsoflivingness,andareasmuchaliveintheirownhumblewayasthemosthighlydevelopedorganisms,sotherudestintentionalandeffectualcommunicationbetweentwomindsthroughtheinstrumentalityofaconcertedsymbolisasmuchlanguageasthemostfinishedoratoryofMr.Gladstone.Idemurthereforetotheassertionthattheloweranimalshavenolanguage,inasmuchastheycannotthemselvesarticulateagrammaticalsentence.Idonotindeedpretendthatwhenthecatcallsuponthetilesituseswhatitconsciouslyandintrospectivelyrecognisesaslanguage;itsayswhatithastosaywithoutintrospection,andintheordinarycourseofbusiness,asoneofthecommonformsofcourtship.ItnomoreknowsthatithasbeenusinglanguagethanM.Jourdainknewhehadbeenspeakingprose,butM.Jourdain"sknowingornotknowingwasneitherherenorthere.Anythingwhichcanbemadetohitchoninvariablytoadefiniteidea thatcancarrysomedistance--sayaninchattheleast,andwhichcanberepeatedatpleasure,canbepressedintotheserviceoflanguage.Mrs.Bentley,wifeofthefamousDr.BentleyofTrinityCollege,Cambridge,usedtosendhersnuff-boxtothecollegebutterywhenshewantedbeer,insteadofawrittenorder.Ifthesnuff-boxcamethebeerwassent,butiftherewasnosnuff-boxtherewasnobeer.Whereindidthesnuff-boxdiffermorefromawrittenorder,thanawrittenorderdiffersfromaspokenone?Thesnuff-boxwasforthetimebeinglanguage.Itsoundsstrangetosaythatonemighttakeapinchofsnuffoutofasentence,butiftheservanthadhelpedhimorherselftoapinchwhilecarryingittothebutterythisiswhatwouldhavebeendone;forifasnuff-boxcansay"Sendmeaquartofbeer,"soefficientlythatthebeerissent,itisimpossibletosaythatitisnotabonafidesentence.Asfortherecipientofthemessage,thebutlerdidnotprobablytranslatethesnuff-boxintoarticulatenounsandverbs;assoonashesawithejustwentdownintothecellaranddrewthebeer,andifhethoughtatall,itwasprobablyaboutsomethingelse.Yethemusthavebeenthinkingwithoutwords,orhewouldhavedrawntoomuchbeerortoolittle,orhavespiltitinthebringingitup,andwemaybesurethathedidnoneofthesethings.Youwill,ofcourse,observethatifMrs.Bentleyhadsentthesnuff-boxtothebutteryofSt.John"sCollegeinsteadofTrinity,itwouldnothavebeenlanguage,fortherewouldhavebeennocovenantbetweensayerandsayeeastowhatthesymbolshouldrepresent,therewouldhavebeennopreviouslyestablishedassociationofideasinthemindofthebutlerofSt.John"sbetweenbeerandsnuff-box;theconnectionwasartificial,arbitrary,andbynomeansoneofthoseinrespectofwhichanimpromptubargainmightbeproposedbytheverysymbolitself,andassentedtowithoutpreviousformalitybythepersontowhomitwaspresented.Morebriefly,thebutlerofSt.John"swouldnothavebeenabletounderstandandreaditaright.Itwouldhavebeenadeadlettertohim--asnuff-boxandnotaletter;whereastothebutlerofTrinityitwasaletterandnotasnuff-box.Youwillalsonotethatitwasonlyatthemomentwhenhewaslookingatitandacceptingitasamessagethatitflashedforthfromsnuff-box-hoodintothelightandlifeoflivingutterance.Assoonasithadkindledthebutlerintosendingasinglequartofbeer,itsforcewasspentuntilMrs.Bentleythrewhersoulintoitagainandchargeditanewbywantingmorebeer,andsendingitdownaccordingly. Again,taketheringwhichtheEarlofEssexsenttoQueenElizabeth,butwhichthequeendidnotreceive.Thiswasintendedasasentence,butfailedtobecomeeffectuallanguagebecausethesensiblematerialsymbolneverreachedthosesentientorganswhichitwasintendedtoaffect.Abook,again,howeverfullofexcellentwordsitmaybe,isnotlanguagewhenitismerelystandingonabookshelf.Itspeakstonoone,unlesswhenbeingactuallyread,orquotedfrombyanactofmemory.Itispotentiallanguageasalucifer-matchispotentialfire,butitisnomorelanguagetillitisincontactwitharecipientmind,thanamatchisfiretillitisstruck,andisbeingconsumed.Apieceofmusic,again,withoutanywordsatall,orasongwithwordsthathavenothingintheworldtodowiththeideaswhichitisneverthelessmadetoconvey,isoftenveryeffectuallanguage.Muchlying,andallironydependsontamperingwithcovenantedsymbols,andmakingthosethatareusuallyassociatedwithonesetofideasconveybyasleightofmindothersofadifferentnature.Thatiswhyironyisintolerablyfatiguingunlessverysparinglyused.TakethesongwhichBlondelsangunderthewindowofKingRichard"sprison.TherewasnotonesyllableinittosaythatBlondelwasthere,andwasgoingtohelpthekingtogetoutofprison.Itwasaboutsomesillyloveaffair,butitwasaletterallthesame,andthekingmadelanguageofwhatwouldotherwisehavebeennolanguage,byguessingthemeaning,thatistosaybyperceivingthathewasexpectedtoenterthenandthereintoanewcovenantastothemeaningofthesymbolsthatwerepresentedtohim,understandingwhatthiscovenantwastobe,andacquiescinginit.Ontheotherhand,noingenuitycantorturelanguageintobeingafitwordtouseinconnectionwitheithersoundsoranyothersymbolsthathavenotbeenintendedtoconveyameaning,oragaininconnectionwitheithersoundsorsymbolsinrespectofwhichtherehasbeennocovenantbetweensayerandsayee.Whenwehearpeoplespeakingaforeignlanguage--wewillsayWelsh--wefeelthatthoughtheyarenodoubtusingwhatisverygoodlanguageasbetweenthemselves,thereisnolanguagewhateverasfarasweareconcerned.Wecallitlingo,notlanguage.TheChineselettersonatea-chestmightaswellnotbethere,forallthattheysaytous,thoughtheChinesefindthemverymuchtothepurpose.Theyareacovenanttowhichwehavebeennoparties--towhichourintelligencehasaffixednosignature. Wehavealreadyseenthatitisinvirtueofsuchanunderstoodcovenantthatsymbolssounlikeoneanotherasthewrittenword"stone"andthespokenwordalikeatonceraisetheideaofastoneinourminds.Seehowthesameholdsgoodasregardsthedifferentlanguagesthatpasscurrentindifferentnations.Thelettersp,i,e,r,r,econveytheideaofastonetoaFrenchmanasreadilyass,t,o,n,edotoourselves.Andwhy?becausethatisthecovenantthathasbeenstruckbetweenthosewhospeakandthosewhoarespokento.Our"stone"conveysnoideatoaFrenchman,norhis"pierre"tous,unlesswehavedonewhatiscommonlycalledacquiringoneanother"slanguage.Toacquireaforeignlanguageisonlytolearnandadheretothecovenantsinrespectofsymbolswhichthenationinquestionhasadoptedandadheresto.Tillwehavedonethisweneitherofusknowtherules,sotospeak,ofthegamethattheotherisplaying,andcannot,therefore,playtogether;buttheconventionbeingonceknownandassentedto,itdoesnotmatterwhetherweraisetheideaofastonebytheword"lapis,"orby"lithos,""pietra,""pierre,""stein,""stane"or"stone";wemaychoosewhatsymbolswrittenorspokenwechoose,andoneset,unlesstheyareofunwieldylengthwilldoaswellasanother,ifwecangetotherpeopletochoosethesameandsticktothem;itistheacceptingandstickingtothemthatmatters,notthesymbols.Thewholepowerofspokenlanguageisvestedintheinvariablenesswithwhichcertainsymbolsareassociatedwithcertainideas.Ifwearestrictinalwaysconnectingthesamesymbolswiththesameideas,wespeakwell,keepourmeaningcleartoourselves,andconveyitreadilyandaccuratelytoanyonewhoisalsofairlystrict.If,ontheotherhand,weusethesamecombinationofsymbolsforonethingonedayandforanotherthenext,weabuseoursymbolsinsteadofusingthem,andthosewhoindulgeinslovenlyhabitsinthisrespecterelonglosethepoweralikeofthinkingandofexpressingthemselvescorrectly.Thesymbols,however,inthefirstinstance,maybeanythinginthewideworldthatwehaveafancyfor.Theyhavenomoretodowiththeideastheyservetoconveythanmoneyhaswiththethingsthatitservestobuy.Theprincipleofassociation,aseveryoneknows,involvesthatwhenevertwothingshavebeenassociatedsufficientlytogether,thesuggestionofoneofthemtothemindshallimmediatelyraiseasuggestionoftheother.Itisinvirtueofthisprinciplethatlanguage,aswesocallit,existsatall,fortheessenceof languageconsists,asIhavesaidperhapsalreadytoooften,inthefixitywithwhichcertainideasareinvariablyconnectedwithcertainsymbols.Butthisbeingso,itishardtoseehowwecandenythattheloweranimalspossessthegermsofahighlyrudeandunspecialised,butstilltruelanguage,unlesswealsodenythattheyhaveanyideasatall;andthisIgatheriswhatProfessorMaxMullerinaquietwayratherwishestodo.Thushesays,"Itiseasyenoughtoshowthatanimalscommunicate,butthisisafactwhichhasneverbeendoubted.Dogswhogrowlandbarkleavenodoubtinthemindsofotherdogsorcats,orevenofman,ofwhattheymean,butgrowlingandbarkingarenotlanguage,nordotheyevencontaintheelementsoflanguage."{18}IobservetheProfessorsaysthatanimalscommunicatewithoutsayingwhatitisthattheycommunicate.Ibelievethistohavebeenbecauseifhesaidthattheloweranimalscommunicatetheirideas,thiswouldbetoadmitthattheyhaveideas;ifso,andif,astheypresenteveryappearanceofdoing,theycanremember,reflectupon,modifytheseideasaccordingtomodifiedsurroundings,andinterchangethemwithoneanother,howisitpossibletodenythemthegermsofthought,language,andreason--nottosayagooddealmorethanthegerms?Itseemstomethatnotknowingwhatelsetosaythatanimalscommunicatedifitwasnotideas,andnotknowingwhatmesshemightnotgetintoifheadmittedthattheyhadideasatall,hethoughtitsafertoomithisaccusativecasealtogether.Thatgrowlingandbarkingcannotbecalledaveryhighlyspecialisedlanguagegoeswithoutsaying;theyare,however,somuchdiversifiedincharacter,accordingtocircumstances,thattheyplaceaconsiderablenumberofsymbolsatananimal"scommand,andheinvariablyattachesthesamesymboltothesameidea.Acatneverpurrswhensheisangry,norspitswhensheispleased.Whensherubsherheadagainstanyoneaffectionatelyitishersymbolforsayingthatsheisveryfondofhim,andsheexpects,andusuallyfindsthatitwillbeunderstood.Ifsheseeshermistressraiseherhandasthoughtopretendtostrikeher,sheknowsthatitisthesymbolhermistressinvariablyattachestotheideaofsendingheraway,andassuchsheacceptsit.Grantedthatthesymbolsinuseamongtheloweranimalsarefewerandlesshighlydifferentiatedthaninthecaseofanyknownhumanlanguage,andthereforethatanimallanguageisincomparablylesssubtleandlesscapableofexpressingdelicateshadesofmeaningthanourown,thesedifferencesareneverthelessonlythosethatexistbetweenhighlydevelopedandinchoatelanguage;theydonotinvolvethosethat distinguishlanguagefromnolanguage.Theyarethedifferencesbetweentheundifferentiatedprotoplasmoftheamoebaandourowncomplexorganisation;theyarenotthedifferencesbetweenlifeandnolife.Inanimallanguageasmuchasinhumanthereisamindintentionallymakinguseofasymbolacceptedbyanothermindasinvariablyattachedtoacertainidea,inordertoproducethatideainthemindwhichitisdesiredtoaffect--morebriefly,thereisasayer,asayee,andacovenantedsymboldesignedlyapplied.Ourownspeechisvertebratedandarticulatedbymeansofnouns,verbs,andtherulesofgrammar.Adog"sspeechisinvertebrate,butIdonotseehowitispossibletodenythatitpossessesalltheessentialelementsoflanguage.IhavesaidnothingaboutProfessorR.L.Garner"sresearchesintothelanguageofapes,becausetheyhavenotyetbeensofarverifiedandacceptedastomakeitsafetorelyuponthem;butwhenhelaysitdownthatallvoluntarysoundsaretheproductsofthought,andthat,iftheyconveyameaningtoanother,theyperformthefunctionsofhumanspeech,hesayswhatIbelievewillcommenditselftoanyunsophisticatedmind.Icouldhavewished,however,thathehadnotlimitedhimselftosounds,andshouldhavepreferredhissayingwhatIdoubtnothewouldreadilyaccept--Imean,thatallsymbolsortokensofwhateverkind,ifvoluntarilyadoptedassuch,aretheproductsofthought,andperformthefunctionsofhumanspeech;butIcannottoooftenremindyouthatnothingcanbeconsideredasfulfillingtheconditionsoflanguage,exceptavoluntaryapplicationofarecognisedtokeninordertoconveyamoreorlessdefinitemeaning,withtheintentiondoubtlessofthuspurchasingasitweresomeotherdesiredmeaningandconsequentsensation.Itisastonishinghowcloselyinthisrespectmoneyandwordsresembleoneanother.Moneyindeedmaybeconsideredasthemostuniversalandexpressiveofalllanguages.Forgoldandsilvercoinsarenomoremoneywhennotintheactualprocessofbeingvoluntarilyusedinpurchase,thanwordsnotsoinusearelanguage.Pounds,shillingsandpencearerecognisedcovenantedtokens,theoutwardandvisiblesignsofaninwardandspiritualpurchasingpower,buttillinactualusetheyareonlypotentialmoney,asthesymbolsoflanguage,whatevertheymaybe,areonlypotentiallanguagetilltheyarepassingbetweentwominds.Itisthepowerandwilltoapplythesymbolsthatalonegiveslifetomoney,andaslongastheseareinabeyancethemoneyisinabeyancealso;thecoinsmaybesafeinone"spocket,buttheyareasdeadasalogtilltheybegintoburninit,andsoareourwordstilltheybegintoburnwithinus. Therealquestion,however,astothesubstantialunderlyingidentitybetweenthelanguageoftheloweranimalsandourown,turnsuponthatotherquestionwhetherorno,inspiteofanimmeasurabledifferenceofdegree,thethoughtandreasonofmanandoftheloweranimalsisessentiallythesame.Noonewillexpectadogtomasterandexpressthevariedideasthatareincessantlyarisinginconnectionwithhumanaffairs.Heisapauperasagainstamillionaire.Toaskhimtodosowouldbelikegivingastreet-boysixpenceandtellinghimtogoandbuyhimselfafounder"sshareintheNewRiverCompany.Hewouldnotevenknowwhatwasmeant,andevenifhediditwouldtakeseveralmillionsofsixpencestobuyone.Itisastonishingwhatacleverworkmanwilldowithverymodesttools,oragainhowfarathriftyhousewifewillmakeaverysmallsumofmoneygo,oragaininlikemannerhowmanyideasanintelligentbrutecanreceiveandconveywithitsverylimitedvocabulary;butnoonewillpretendthatadog"sintelligencecaneverreachthelevelofaman"s.Whatwedomaintainisthat,withinitsownlimitedrange,itisofthesameessentialcharacterasourown,andthatthoughadog"sideasinrespectofhumanaffairsarebothvagueandnarrow,yetinrespectofcanineaffairstheyarepreciseenoughandextensiveenoughtodeservenoothernamethanthoughtorreason.Weholdmoreoverthattheycommunicatetheirideasinessentiallythesamemanneraswedo--thatistosay,bytheinstrumentalityofacodeofsymbolsattachedtocertainstatesofmindandmaterialobjects,inthefirstinstancearbitrarily,butsopersistently,thatthepresentationofthesymbolimmediatelycarrieswithittheideawhichitisintendedtoconvey.Animalscanthusreceiveandimpartideasonallthatmostconcernsthem.Asmygreatnamesakesaidsometwohundredyearsago,theyknow"what"swhat,andthat"sashighasmetaphysicwitcanfly."Andtheynotonlyknowwhat"swhatthemselves,butcanimparttooneanotheranynewwhat"s-whatnessthattheymayhaveacquired,fortheyarenotoriouslyabletoinstructandcorrectoneanother.AgainstthisProfessorMaxMullercontendsthatwecanknownothingofwhatgoesoninthemindofanyloweranimal,inasmuchaswearenotloweranimalsourselves."Wecanimagineanythingwelikeaboutwhatpassesinthemindofananimal,"hewrites,"wecanknowabsolutelynothing."{19}Itissomethingtohaveitinevidencethatheconceivesanimalsashavingamindatall,butitisnoteasytoseehowtheycanbesupposedtohaveamind,withoutbeingabletoacquireideas,andhavingacquired,toread,mark,learn, andinwardlydigestthem.Surelythemistakeofrequiringtoomuchevidenceishardlylessgreatthanthatofbeingcontentedwithtoolittle.We,too,areanimals,andcannomorerefusetoinferreasonfromcertainvisibleactionsintheircasethanwecaninourown.IfProfessorMaxMuller"spleawereallowed,weshouldhavetodenyourrighttoinferconfidentlywhatpassesinthemindofanyonenotourselves,inasmuchaswearenotthatperson.Wenever,indeed,canobtainirrefragablecertaintyaboutthisoranyothermatter,butwecanbesureenoughinmanycasestowarrantourstakingallthatismostprecioustousonthesoundnessofouropinion.Moreover,iftheProfessordeniesourrighttoinferthatanimalsreason,onthegroundthatwearenotanimalsenoughourselvestobeabletoformanopinion,withwhatrightdoesheinfersoconfidentlyhimselfthattheydonotreason?Andhow,iftheypresenteveryoneofthoseappearanceswhichweareaccustomedtoconnectwiththecommunicationofanideafromonemindtoanother,canwedenythattheyhavealanguageoftheirown,thoughitisonewhichinmostcaseswecanneitherspeaknorunderstand?Howcanwesaythatasentinelrook,whenitseesamanwithagunandwarnstheotherrooksbyaconcertednotewhichtheyallshowthattheyunderstandbyimmediatelytakingflight,shouldnotbecreditedbothwithreasonandthegermsoflanguage?Afterall,aprofessor,whetherofphilology,psychology,biology,oranyotherology,ishardlythekindofpersontowhomweshouldappealonsuchanelementaryquestionasthatofanimalintelligenceandlanguage.Wemightaswellaskabotanisttotelluswhethergrassgrows,orameteorologisttotellusifithasleftoffraining.Ifitisnecessarytoappealtoanyone,Ishouldprefertheopinionofanintelligentgamekeepertothatofanyprofessor,howeverlearned.Thekeepers,again,attheZoologicalGardens,haveexceptionalopportunitiesforstudyingthemindsofanimals--modified,indeed,bycaptivity,butstillmindsofanimals.Grooms,again,anddog-fanciers,aretothefullasabletoformanintelligentopiniononthereasonandlanguageofanimalsasanyUniversityProfessor,andsoarecats"-meatmen.IhaverepeatedlyaskedgamekeepersandkeepersattheZoologicalGardenswhetheranimalscouldreasonandconversewithoneanother,andhavealwaysfoundmyselfregardedsomewhatcontemptuouslyforhavingevenaskedthequestion.Ioncesaidtoafriend,inthehearingofakeeperattheZoologicalGardens,thatthepenguinwasverystupid.Themanwasfurious,andjumpeduponmeatonce."He"snotstupidatall,"saidhe;"he"sveryintelligent." Whohasnotseenacat,whenitwishestogoout,raiseitsforepawsontothehandleofthedoor,orasnearasitcanget,andlookround,evidentlyaskingsomeonetoturnitforher?Isitreasonabletodenythatareasoningprocessisgoingoninthecat"smind,wherebysheconnectsherwishwiththestepsnecessaryforitsfulfilment,andalsowithcertaininvariablesymbolswhichsheknowshermasterormistresswillinterpret?Once,incompanywithafriend,Iwatchedacatplayingwithahouse-flyinthewindowofaground-floorroom.Wewereinthestreet,whilethecatwasinside.Whenwecameuptothewindowshegaveusonesearchinglook,and,havingsatisfiedherselfthatwehadnothingforher,wentonwithhergame.Sheknewallabouttheglassinthewindow,andwassurewecoulddonothingtomolesther,soshetreateduswithabsolutecontempt,neverevenlookingatusagain.Thegamewasthis.Shewastocatchtheflyandrollitroundandroundunderherpawalongthewindow-sill,butsogentlyasnottoinjureitnorpreventitfrombeingabletoflyagainwhenshehaddonerollingit.Itwasveryearlyspring,andflieswerescarce,infacttherewasnotanotherinthewholewindow.Sheknewthatifshecrippledthisone,itwouldnotbeabletoamuseherfurther,andthatshewouldnotreadilygetanotherinstead,andshelikedthefeelofitunderherpaw.Itwassoftandliving,andthequiveringofitswingstickledtheballofherfootinamannerthatshefoundparticularlygrateful;sosherolleditgentlyalongthewholelengthofthewindow-sill.Itthenbecamethefly"sturn.Hewastogetupandflyaboutinthewindow,soastorecoverhimselfalittle;thenshewastocatchhimagain,androllhimsoftlyallalongthewindow-sill,asshehaddonebefore.Itwasplainthatthecatknewtherulesofhergameperfectlywell,andenjoyeditkeenly.Itwasequallyplainthattheflycouldnotmakeheadortailofwhatitwasallabout.Ifithadbeenabletodosoitwouldhavegonetoplayintheupperpartofthewindow,wherethecatcouldnotreachit.Perhapsitwasalwayshopingtogetthroughtheglass,andescapethatway;anyhow,itkeptprettymuchtothesamepane,nomatterhowoftenitwasrolled.Atlast,however,thefly,forsomereasonoranother,didnotreappearonthepane,andthecatbeganlookingeverywheretofindit.Herannoyancewhenshefailedtodosowasextreme.Itwasnotonlythatshehadlostherfly,butthatshecouldnotconceivehowsheshouldhaveevercometodoso.Presentlyshenotedasmallknotinthewoodworkofthesill,anditflasheduponherthatshehadaccidentallykilledthefly,andthatthiswasitsdeadbody.She triedtomoveitgentlywithherpaw,butitwasnouse,andforthetimeshesatisfiedherselfthattheknotandtheflyhadnothingtodowithoneanother.Everynowandthen,however,shereturnedtoitasthoughitweretheonlythingshecouldthinkof,andshewouldtryitagain.Sheseemedtosayshewascertaintherehadbeennoknottherebefore--shemusthaveseenitiftherehadbeen;andyet,theflycouldhardlyhavegotjammedsofirmlyintothewood.Shewaspuzzledandirritatedbeyondmeasure,andkeptlookinginthesameplaceagainandagain,justaswedowhenwehavemislaidsomething.Shewasrapidlylosingtemperanddignitywhensuddenlywesawtheflyreappearfromunderthecat"sstomachandmakeforthewindow-pane,attheverymomentwhenthecatherselfwasexclaimingforthefiftiethtimethatshewonderedwherethatstupidflyevercouldhavegotto.Nomanwhohasbeenhuntingtwentyminutesforhisspectaclescouldbemoredelightedwhenhesuddenlyfindsthemonhisownforehead."Sothat"swhereyouwere,"weseemedtohearhersay,assheproceededtocatchit,andagainbeganrollingitverysoftlywithouthurtingit,underherpaw.MyfriendandIbothnoticedthatthecat,inspiteofherperplexity,neversomuchashintedthatweweretheculprits.Thequestionwhetheranythingoutsidethewindowcoulddohergoodorharmhadlongsincebeensettledbyherinthenegative,andshewasnotgoingtoreopenit;shesimplycutusdead,andthoughherannoyancewassogreatthatshewasmanifestlyreadytolaytheblameonanybodyoranythingwithorwithoutreason,andthoughshemusthaveperfectlywellknownthatwewerewatchingthewholeaffairwithamusement,shenevereitheraskedusifwehadhappenedtoseesuchathingasaflygodownourwaylately,oraccusedusofhavingtakenitfromher--bothofwhichideasshewould,Iamconfident,havebeenverywellabletoconveytousifshehadbeensominded.Nowwhatarethoughtandreasoniftheprocessesthatweregoingthroughthiscat"smindwerenotbothoneandtheother?Itwouldbechildishtosupposethatthecatthoughtinwordsofitsown,orinanythinglikewords.Itsthinkingwasprobablyconductedthroughtheinstrumentalityofaseriesofmentalimages.Wesohabituallythinkinwordsourselvesthatwefinditdifficulttorealisethoughtwithoutwordsatall;ourdifficulty,however,inimaginingtheparticularmannerinwhichthecatthinkshasnothingtodowiththematter.Wemustanswerthequestionwhethershethinksorno,notaccordingtoourowneaseordifficultyinunderstandingtheparticularmannerofherthinking,butaccordingasheractiondoesordoesnotappeartobeofthesamecharacterasotheractionthat wecommonlycallthoughtful.Tosaythatthecatisnotintelligent,merelyonthegroundthatwecannotourselvesfathomherintelligence--this,asIhaveelsewheresaid,istomakeintelligencemeanthepowerofbeingunderstood,ratherthanthepowerofunderstanding.Thisneverthelessiswhat,forallourboastedintelligence,wegenerallydo.Themorewecanunderstandananimal"sways,themoreintelligentwecallit,andthelesswecanunderstandthese,themorestupiddowedeclareittobe.Asforplants--whosepunctualityandattentiontoallthedetailsandroutineoftheirsomewhatrestrictedlinesofbusinessisasobviousasitisbeyondallpraise--weunderstandtheworkingoftheirmindssolittlethatbycommonconsentwedeclarethemtohavenointelligenceatall.BeforeconcludingIshouldwishtodealalittlemorefullywithProfessorMaxMuller"scontentionthattherecanbenoreasonwithoutlanguage,andnolanguagewithoutreason.Surelywhentwopractisedpugilistsarefighting,parryingeachother"sblows,andwatchingkeenlyforanunguardedpoint,theyarethinkingandreasoningverysubtlythewholetime,withoutdoingsoinwords.Themachinationoftheirthoughts,aswellasitsexpression,isactual--Imean,effectuatedandexpressedbyactionanddeed,notwords.Theyareunawareofanylogicalsequenceofthoughtthattheycouldfollowinwordsaspassingthroughtheirmindsatall.Theymayperhapsthinkconsciouslyinwordsnowandagain,butsuchthoughtwillbeintermittent,andthemainpartofthefightingwillbedonewithoutanyinternalconcomitanceofarticulatedphrases.Yetwecannotdoubtthattheiraction,howevermuchwemaydisapproveofit,isguidedbyintelligenceandreason;norshouldwedoubtthatareasoningprocessofthesamecharactergoesoninthemindsoftwodogsorfighting-cockswhentheyarestrivingtomastertheiropponents.Dowethinkinwords,again,whenwewindupourwatches,putonourclothes,oreatourbreakfasts?Ifwedo,itisgenerallyaboutsomethingelse.Wedothesethingsalmostasmuchwithoutthehelpofwordsaswewinkoryawn,orperformanyofthoseotheractionsthatwecallreflex,asitwouldalmostseembecausetheyaredonewithoutreflection.Theyarenot,however,thelessreasonablebecausewordless.Evenwhenwethinkwearethinkinginwords,wedosoonlyinhalfmeasure.Arunningaccompanimentofwordsnodoubtfrequentlyattendsourthoughts;but,unlesswearewritingorspeaking,this accompanimentisofthevaguestandmostfitfulkind,asweoftenfindoutwhenwetrytowritedownorsaywhatwearethinkingabout,thoughwehaveafairlydefinitenotionofit,orfancythatwehaveone,allthetime.Thethoughtisnotsteadilyandcoherentlygovernedbyandmouldedinwords,nordoesitsteadilygovernthem.Wordsandthoughtinteractuponandhelponeanother,asanyothermechanicalappliancesinteractonandhelptheinventionthatfirsthituponthem;butreasonorthought,forthemostpart,fliesalongovertheheadsofwords,workingitsownmysteriouswayinpathsthatarebeyondourken,thoughwhethersomeofourdepartmentalpersonalitiesareasunconsciousofwhatispassing,asthatcentralgovernmentiswhichwealonedubwiththenameof"we"or"us,"isapointonwhichIwillnotnowtouch.Icannotthink,then,thatProfessorMaxMuller"scontentionthatthoughtandlanguageareidentical--andhehasrepeatedlyaffirmedthis--willeverbegenerallyaccepted.Thoughtisnomoreidenticalwithlanguagethanfeelingisidenticalwiththenervoussystem.True,wecannomorefeelwithoutanervoussystemthanwecandiscerncertainminuteorganismswithoutamicroscope.Destroythenervoussystem,andwedestroyfeeling.Destroythemicroscope,andwecannolongerseetheanimalcules;butoursightoftheanimalculesisnotthemicroscope,thoughitiseffectuatedbymeansofthemicroscope,andourfeelingisnotthenervoussystem,thoughthenervoussystemistheinstrumentthatenablesustofeel.Thenervoussystemisadevicewhichlivingbeingshavegraduallyperfected--IbelieveImaysayquitetruly--throughthewillandpowerwhichtheyhavederivedfromafountain-head,theexistenceofwhichwecaninfer,butwhichwecanneverapprehend.Bythehelpofthisdevice,andinproportionastheyhaveperfectedit,livingbeingsfeeleverwithgreaterdefiniteness,andhenceformulatetheirfeelingsinthoughtwithmoreandmoreprecision.Thehigherevolutionofthoughthasreactedonthenervoussystem,andtheconsequenthigherevolutionofthenervoussystemhasagainreacteduponthought.Thesethingsareaspoweranddesire,orsupplyanddemand,eachoneofwhichiscontinuallyoutstripping,andbeinginturnoutstrippedbytheother;but,inspiteoftheircloseconnectionandinteraction,powerisnotdesire,nordemandsupply.Languageisadeviceevolvedsometimesbyleapsandbounds,andsometimesexceedinglyslowly,wherebywehelpourselvesaliketogreaterease,precision,andcomplexityofthought,andalsotomoreconvenientinterchangeofthoughtamongourselves.Thoughtfoundrudeexpression,whichgraduallyamongotherformsassumedthatof words.Thesereacteduponthought,andthoughtagainonthem,butthoughtisnomoreidenticalwithwordsthanwordsarewiththeseparatelettersofwhichtheyarecomposed.Tosumup,then,andtoconclude.Iwouldaskyoutoseetheconnectionbetweenwordsandideas,asinthefirstinstancearbitrary.Nodoubtinsomecasesanimitationofthecryofsomebirdorwildbeastwouldsuggestthenamethatshouldbeattachedtoit;occasionallythesoundofanoperationsuchasgrindingmayhaveinfluencedthechoiceofthelettersg,r,astherootofmanywordsthatdenoteagrinding,grating,grasping,crushing,action;butIunderstandthatthenumberofwordsduetodirectimitationiscomparativelyfewinnumber,andthattheyhavebeenmainlycoinedastheresultofconnectionssofar-fetchedandfancifulastoamountpracticallytonoconnectionatall.Oncechosen,however,theywereadheredtoforaconsiderabletimeamongthedwellersinanygivenplace,soastobecomeacknowledgedasthevulgartongue,andraisereadilyinthemindoftheinhabitantsofthatplacetheideaswithwhichtheyhadbeenartificiallyassociated.Asregardsourbeingabletothinkandreasonwithoutwords,theDukeofArgyllhasputthematterassoundlyasIhaveyetseenitstated."Itseemstome,"hewrote,"quitecertainthatwecananddoconstantlythinkofthingswithoutthinkingofanysoundorwordasdesignatingthem.Languageseemstometobenecessaryfortheprogressofthought,butnotatallforthemereactofthinking.Itisaproductofthought,anexpressionofit,avehicleforthecommunicationofit,andanembodimentwhichisessentialtoitsgrowthandcontinuity;butitseemstomealtogethererroneoustoregarditasaninseparablepartofcogitation."Thefollowingpassages,again,arequotedfromSirWilliamHamiltoninProfessorMaxMuller"sownbook,withsomuchapprovalastoleadonetosupposethatthedifferencesbetweenhimselfandhisopponentsareinrealitylessthanhebelievesthemtobe:-"Language,"saysSirW.Hamilton,"istheattributionofsignstoourcognitionsofthings.Butasacognitionmusthavealreadybeentherebeforeitcouldreceiveasign,consequentlythatknowledgewhichisdenotedbytheformationandapplicationofawordmusthaveprecededthesymbolthatdenotesit.Asign,however,isnecessarytogivestabilitytoourintellectualprogress--toestablisheachstepinouradvanceasanewstarting-pointforouradvancetoanotherbeyond.Acountrymaybeoverrunbyanarmed host,butitisonlyconqueredbytheestablishmentoffortresses.Wordsarethefortressesofthought.Theyenableustorealiseourdominionoverwhatwehavealreadyoverruninthought;tomakeeveryintellectualconquestthebaseofoperationsforothersstillbeyond.""This,"saysProfessorMaxMuller,"isamosthappyillustration,"andheproceedstoquotethefollowing,alsofromSirWilliamHamilton,whichhedeclarestobeevenhappierstill."Youhaveallheard,"saysSirWilliamHamilton,"oftheprocessoftunnellingthroughasandbank.Inthisoperationitisimpossibletosucceedunlesseveryfoot,nay,almosteveryinchofourprogressbesecuredbyanarchofmasonrybeforeweattempttheexcavationofanother.Nowlanguageistothemindpreciselywhatthearchistothetunnel.Thepowerofthinkingandthepowerofexcavationarenotdependentonthewordsintheonecaseoronthemason-workintheother;butwithoutthesesubsidiariesneithercouldbecarriedonbeyonditsrudimentarycommencement.Though,therefore,weallowthateverymovementforwardinlanguagemustbedeterminedbyanantecedentmovementforwardinthought,still,unlessthoughtbeaccompaniedateachpointofitsevolutionsbyacorrespondingevolutionoflanguage,itsfurtherdevelopmentisarrested."Manhasevolvedanarticulatelanguage,whereastheloweranimalsseemtobewithoutone.Man,therefore,hasfaroutstrippedtheminreasoningfacultyaswellasinpowerofexpression.This,however,doesnotbarthecommunicationswhichtheloweranimalsmaketooneanotherfrompossessingalltheessentialcharacteristicsoflanguage,andasamatteroffact,whereverwecanfollowthemwefindsuchcommunicationseffectuatedbytheaidofarbitrarysymbolscovenanteduponbythelivingbeingsthatwishtocommunicate,andpersistentlyassociatedwithcertaincorrespondingfeelings,statesofmind,ormaterialobjects.Humanlanguageisnothingmorethanthisinprinciple,howevermuchfurthertheprinciplehasbeencarriedinourowncasethaninthatoftheloweranimals.Thisbeingadmitted,weshouldinferthatthethoughtorreasononwhichthelanguageofmenandanimalsisalikefoundeddiffersasbetweenmenandbrutesindegreebutnotinkind.Morethanthiscannotbeclaimedonbehalfoftheloweranimals,evenbytheirmostenthusiasticadmirer. THEDEADLOCKINDARWINISM{20}--PARTIItwillbereadilyadmittedthatofalllivingwritersMr.AlfredRusselWallaceistheonethepeculiarturnofwhosemindbestfitshimtowriteonthesubjectofnaturalselection,ortheaccumulationoffortunatebutaccidentalvariationsthroughdescentandthestruggleforexistence.HismindinallitsmoreessentialcharacteristicscloselyresemblesthatofthelateMr.CharlesDarwinhimself,anditisnodoubtduetothisfactthatheandMr.Darwinelaboratedtheirfamoustheoryatthesametime,andindependentlyofoneanother.Ishallhaveoccasioninthecourseofthefollowingarticletoshowhowmisledandmisleadingboththesedistinguishedmenhavebeen,inspiteoftheirunquestionablefamiliaritywiththewholerangeofanimalandvegetablephenomena.Ibelieveitwillbemorerespectfultobothofthemtodothisinthemostout-spokenway.Ibelievetheirworktohavebeenasmischievousasithasbeenvaluable,andasvaluableasithasbeenmischievous;andhigher,whetherpraiseorblame,Iknownothowtogive.NeverthelessIwouldintheoutset,andwiththeutmostsincerity,admitconcerningMessrs.WallaceandDarwinthatneithercanbeheldasthemoreprofoundandconscientiousthinker;neithercanbeputforwardasthemorereadytoacknowledgeobligationtothegreatwritersonevolutionwhohadprecededhim,ortoplacehisowndevelopmentsincloserandmoreconspicuoushistoricalconnectionwithearlierthoughtuponthesubject;neitheristhemorereadytowelcomecriticismandtostatehisopponent"scaseinthemostpointedandtellingwayinwhichitcanbeput;neitheristhemorequicktoencouragenewtruth;neitheristhemoregenial,generousadversary,orhastheprofounderhorrorofanythingevenapproachingliteraryorscientificwantofcandour;bothdisplaythesameinimitablepowerofputtingtheiropinionsforwardinthewaythatshallbestensuretheiracceptance;bothareequallyunrivalledinthetactthattellsthemwhensilencewillbegolden,andwhenontheotherhandawholevolumeoffactsmaybeadvantageouslybroughtforward.LessthantheforegoingtributebothtoMessrs.DarwinandWallaceIwillnot,andmoreIcannotpay.Letusnowturntothemostauthoritativeexponentoflatter-dayevolution--ImeantoMr.Wallace,whosework,entitled"Darwinism,"thoughitshouldhavebeenentitled"Wallaceism,"isstillsofarDarwinisticthatitdevelopstheteachingofMr.Darwininthe directiongiventoitbyMr.Darwinhimself--sofar,indeed,asthiscanbeascertainedatall--andnotinthatofLamarck.Mr.Wallacetellsus,onthefirstpageofhispreface,thathehasnointentionofdealingeveninoutlinewiththevastsubjectofevolutioningeneral,andhasonlytriedtogivesuchanaccountofthetheoryofnaturalselectionasmayfacilitateaclearconceptionofDarwin"swork.Howfarhehassucceededisapointonwhichopinionwillprobablybedivided.ThosewhofindMr.Darwin"sworksclearwillalsofindnodifficultyinunderstandingMr.Wallace;those,ontheotherhand,whofindMr.DarwinpuzzlingarelittlelikelytobelesspuzzledbyMr.Wallace.Hecontinues:-"TheobjectionsnowmadetoDarwin"stheoryapplysolelytotheparticularmeansbywhichthechangeofspecieshasbeenbroughtabout,nottothefactofthatchange."But"Darwin"stheory"--asMr.Wallacehaselsewhereprovedthatheunderstands--hasnoreference"tothefactofthatchange"--thatistosay,tothefactthatspecieshavebeenmodifiedincourseofdescentfromotherspecies.ThisisnomoreMr.Darwin"stheorythanitisthereader"sormyown.Darwin"stheoryisconcernedonlywith"theparticularmeansbywhichthechangeofspecieshasbeenbroughtabout";hiscontentionbeingthatthisismainlyduetothenaturalsurvivalofthoseindividualsthathavehappenedbysomeaccidenttobebornmostfavourablyadaptedtotheirsurroundings,or,inotherwords,throughaccumulationinthecommoncourseofnatureofthemoreluckyvariationsthatchanceoccasionallypurveys.Mr.Wallace"swords,then,inrealityamounttothis,thattheobjectionsnowmadetoDarwin"stheoryapplysolelytoDarwin"stheory,whichisallverywellasfarasitgoes,butmighthavebeenmoreeasilyapprehendedifhehadsimplysaid,"ThereareseveralobjectionsnowmadetoMr.Darwin"stheory."ItmustberememberedthatthepassagequotedaboveoccursonthefirstpageofaprefacedatedMarch1889,whenthewriterhadcompletedhistask,andwasmostfullyconversantwithhissubject.Nevertheless,itseemsindisputableeitherthatheisstillconfusingevolutionwithMr.Darwin"stheory,orthathedoesnotknowwhenhissentenceshavepointandwhentheyhavenone.IshouldperhapsexplaintosomereadersthatMr.Darwindidnotmodifythemaintheoryputforward,firstbyBuffon,towhomitindisputablybelongs,andadoptedfromhimbyErasmusDarwin,Lamarck,andmanyotherwritersinthelatterhalfofthelast centuryandtheearlieryearsofthepresent.Theearlyevolutionistsmaintainedthatallexistingformsofanimalandvegetablelife,includingman,werederivedincourseofdescentwithmodificationfromformsresemblingthelowestnowknown.Mr.Darwinwentasfarasthis,andfarthernoonecango.Thepointatissuebetweenhimandhispredecessorsinvolvesneitherthemainfactofevolution,noryetthegeometricalratioofincrease,andthestruggleforexistenceconsequentthereon.Messrs.DarwinandWallacehaveeachthrowninvaluablelightupontheselasttwopoints,butBuffon,asearlyas1756,hadmadethemthekeystoneofhissystem."Themovementofnature,"hethenwrote,"turnsontwoimmovablepivots:one,theillimitablefecunditywhichshehasgiventoallspecies:theother,theinnumerabledifficultieswhichreducetheresultsofthatfecundity."ErasmusDarwinandLamarckfollowedinthesamesense.TheythusadmitthesurvivalofthefittestasfullyasMr.Darwinhimself,thoughtheydonotmakeuseofthisparticularexpression.Thedisputeturnsnotuponnaturalselection,whichiscommontoallwritersonevolution,butuponthenatureandcausesofthevariationsthataresupposedtobeselectedfromandthusaccumulated.Arethesemainlyattributabletotheinheritedeffectsofuseanddisuse,supplementedbyoccasionalsportsandhappyaccidents?Oraretheymainlyduetosportsandhappyaccidents,supplementedbyoccasionalinheritedeffectsofuseanddisuse?TheLamarckiansystemhasallalongbeenmaintainedbyMr.HerbertSpencer,who,inhis"PrinciplesofBiology,"publishedin1865,showedhowimpossibleitwasthataccidentalvariationsshouldaccumulateatall.IamnotsurehowfarMr.SpencerwouldconsenttobeingcalledaLamarckianpureandsimple,noryethowfaritisstrictlyaccuratetocallhimone;nevertheless,IcanseenoimportantdifferenceinthemainpositionstakenbyhimandbyLamarck.ThequestionatissuebetweentheLamarckians,supportedbyMr.SpencerandagrowingbandofthosewhohaveriseninrebellionagainsttheCharles-Darwiniansystemontheonehand,andMessrs.DarwinandWallacewiththegreaternumberofourmoreprominentbiologistsontheother,involvestheveryexistenceofevolutionasaworkabletheory.ForitisplainthatwhatNaturecanbesupposedabletodobywayofchoicemustdependonthesupplyofthevariationsfromwhichsheissupposedtochoose.Shecannottakewhatisnotofferedtoher;andsoagainshecannotbesupposedable toaccumulateunlesswhatisgainedinonedirectioninonegeneration,orseriesofgenerations,islittlelikelytobelostinthosethatpresentlysucceed.Nowvariationsascribedmainlytouseanddisusecanbesupposedcapableofbeingaccumulated,foruseanddisusearefairlyconstantforlongperiodsamongtheindividualsofthesamespecies,andoftenoverlargeareas;moreover,conditionsofexistenceinvolvingchangesofhabit,andthusoforganisation,comeforthemostpartgradually;sothattimeisgivenduringwhichtheorganismcanendeavourtoadaptitselfintherequisiterespects,insteadofbeingshockedoutofexistencebytoosuddenchange.Variations,ontheotherhand,thatareascribedtomerechancecannotbesupposedaslikelytobeaccumulated,forchanceisnotoriouslyinconstant,andwouldnotpurveythevariationsinsufficientlyunbrokensuccession,orinasufficientnumberofindividuals,modifiedsimilarlyinallthenecessarycorrelationsatthesametimeandplacetoadmitoftheirbeingaccumulated.Itisvitalthereforetothetheoryofevolution,aswasearlypointedoutbythelateProfessorFleemingJenkinandbyMr.HerbertSpencer,thatvariationsshouldbesupposedtohaveadefiniteandpersistentprincipleunderlyingthem,whichshalltendtoengendersimilarandsimultaneousmodification,howeversmall,inthevastmajorityofindividualscomposinganyspecies.Theexistenceofsuchaprincipleanditspermanenceistheonlythingthatcanbesupposedcapableofactingasrudderandcompasstotheaccumulationofvariations,andofmakingitholdsteadilyononecourseforeachspecies,tilleventuallymanyhavens,farremotefromoneanother,aresafelyreached.ItisobviousthatthehavingfatallyimpairedthetheoryofhispredecessorscouldnotwarrantMr.Darwininclaiming,ashemostfatuouslydid,thetheoryofevolution.Thatheisstillgenerallybelievedtohavebeentheoriginatorofthistheoryisduetothefactthatheclaimedit,andthatapowerfulliterarybackingatoncecameforwardtosupporthim.Itseemsatfirstsightimprobablethatthosewhotoozealouslyurgedhisclaimswereunawarethatsomuchhadbeenwrittenonthesubject,butwhenwefindevenMr.Wallacehimselfasprofoundlyignorantonthissubjectashestilleitheris,oraffectstobe,thereisnolimitassignabletotheignoranceoraffectedignoranceofthekindofbiologistswhowouldwritereviewsinleadingjournalsthirtyyearsago.Mr.Wallacewrites:-"Afewgreatnaturalists,struckbytheveryslightdifferencebetweenmanyofthesespecies,andthenumerouslinksthatexist betweenthemostdifferentformsofanimalsandplants,andalsoobservingthatagreatmanyspeciesdovaryconsiderablyintheirforms,coloursandhabits,conceivedtheideathattheymightbeallproducedonefromtheother.ThemosteminentofthesewriterswasagreatFrenchnaturalist,Lamarck,whopublishedanelaboratework,thePhilosophieZoologique,inwhichheendeavouredtoprovethatallanimalswhateveraredescendedfromotherspeciesofanimals.Heattributedthechangeofspecieschieflytotheeffectofchangesintheconditionsoflife--suchasclimate,food,&c.;andespeciallytothedesiresandeffortsoftheanimalsthemselvestoimprovetheircondition,leadingtoamodificationofformorsizeincertainparts,owingtothewell-knownphysiologicallawthatallorgansarestrengthenedbyconstantuse,whiletheyareweakenedorevencompletelylostbydisuse..."Theonlyotherimportantworkdealingwiththequestionwasthecelebrated"VestigesofCreation,"publishedanonymously,butnowacknowledgedtohavebeenwrittenbythelateRobertChambers."Nonearesoblindasthosewhowillnotsee,anditwouldbewasteoftimetoarguewiththeinvincibleignoranceofonewhothinksLamarckandBuffonconceivedthatallspecieswereproducedfromoneanother,moreespeciallyasIhavealreadydealtatsomelengthwiththeearlyevolutionistsinmywork,"Evolution,OldandNew,"firstpublishedtenyearsago,andnot,sofarasIamaware,detectedinseriouserrororomission.If,however,Mr.WallacestillthinksitsafetopresumesofarontheignoranceofhisreadersastosaythattheonlytwoimportantworksonevolutionbeforeMr.Darwin"swereLamarck"sPhilosophieZoologiqueandthe"VestigesofCreation,"howfathomableistheignoranceoftheaveragereviewerlikelytohavebeenthirtyyearsago,whenthe"OriginofSpecies"wasfirstpublished?Mr.Darwinclaimedevolutionashisowntheory.Ofcourse,hewouldnotclaimitifhehadnorighttoit.Thenbyallmeansgivehimthecreditofit.Thiswasthemostnaturalviewtotake,anditwasgenerallytaken.Itwasnot,moreover,surprisingthatpeoplefailedtoappreciateallthenicetiesofMr.Darwin"s"distinctivefeature"which,whetherdistinctiveorno,wasassuredlynotdistinct,andwasneverfranklycontrastedwiththeolderview,asitwouldhavebeenbyonewhowishedittobeunderstoodandjudgeuponitsmerits.ItwasinconsequenceofthisomissionthatpeoplefailedtonotehowfastandlooseMr.Darwinplayedwithhisdistinctivefeature,andhowreadilyhedroppeditonoccasion. ItmaybesaidthatthequestionofwhatwasthoughtbythepredecessorsofMr.Darwinis,afterall,personal,andofnointeresttothegeneralpublic,comparabletothatofthemainissue--whetherwearetoacceptevolutionornot.GrantedthatBuffon,ErasmusDarwin,andLamarckboretheburdenandheatofthedaybeforeMr.CharlesDarwinwasborn,theydidnotbringpeopleroundtotheiropinion,whereasMr.DarwinandMr.Wallacedid,andthepubliccannotbeexpectedtolookbeyondthisbroadandindisputablefact.Theanswertothisis,thatthetheorywhichMessrs.DarwinandWallacehavepersuadedthepublictoacceptisdemonstrablyfalse,andthattheopponentsofevolutionarecertainintheendtotriumphoverit.Paley,inhis"NaturalTheology,"longsincebroughtforwardfartoomuchevidenceofdesigninanimalorganisationtoallowofoursettingdownitsmarvelstotheaccumulationsoffortunateaccident,undirectedbywill,effortandintelligence.Thosewhoexaminethemainfactsofanimalandvegetableorganisationwithoutbiaswill,nodoubt,erelongconcludethatallanimalsandvegetablesarederivedultimatelyfromunicellularorganisms,buttheywillnotlessreadilyperceivethattheevolutionofspecieswithouttheconcomitanceanddirectionofmindandeffortisasinconceivableasistheindependentcreationofeveryindividualspecies.Thetwofacts,evolutionanddesign,areequallypatenttoplainpeople.Thereisnoescapingfromeither.AccordingtoMessrs.DarwinandWallace,wemayhaveevolution,butareonnoaccounttohaveitasmainlyduetointelligenteffort,guidedbyeverhigherandhigherrangeofsensations,perceptions,andideas.Wearetosetitdowntotheshufflingofcards,orthethrowingofdicewithouttheplay,andthiswillneverstand.Accordingtotheoldermen,cardsdidindeedcountformuch,butplaycountedformore.Theydeniedtheteleologyofthetime--thatistosay,theteleologythatsawalladaptationtosurroundingsaspartofaplandevisedlongagessincebyaquasi-anthropomorphicbeingwhoschemedeverythingoutmuchasamanwoulddo,butonaninfinitelyvasterscale.Thisconceptiontheyfoundrepugnantaliketointelligenceandconscience,but,thoughtheydonotseemtohaveperceivedit,theyleftthedooropenforadesignmoretrueandmoredemonstrablethanthatwhichtheyexcluded.Bymakingtheirvariationsmainlyduetoeffortandintelligence,theymadeorganicdevelopmentrunonall-fourswithhumanprogress,andwithinventionswhichwehavewatchedgrowingupfromsmallbeginnings. Theymadethedevelopmentofmanfromtheamoebapartandparcelofthestorythatmayberead,thoughonaninfinitelysmallerscale,inthedevelopmentofourmostpowerfulmarineenginesfromthecommonkettle,orofourfinestmicroscopesfromthedew-drop.Thedevelopmentofthesteam-engineandthemicroscopeisduetointelligenceanddesign,whichdidindeedutilisechancesuggestions,butwhichimprovedonthese,anddirectedeachstepoftheiraccumulation,thoughneverforeseeingmorethanasteportwoahead,andoftennotsomuchasthis.Thefact,asIhaveelsewhereurged,thatthemanwhomadethefirstkettledidnotforeseetheenginesoftheGreatEastern,orthathewhofirstnotedthemagnifyingpowerofthedew-drophadnoconceptionofourpresentmicroscopes--theverylimitedamount,infact,ofdesignandintelligencethatwascalledintoplayatanyonepoint--thisdoesnotmakeusdenythatthesteam-engineandmicroscopeowetheirdevelopmenttodesign.Ifeachstepoftheroadwasdesigned,thewholejourneywasdesigned,thoughtheparticularendwasnotdesignedwhenthejourneywasbegun.Andsoisit,accordingtotheolderviewofevolution,withthedevelopmentofthoselivingorgans,ormachines,thatarebornwithus,aspartoftheperambulatingcarpenter"schestwecallourbodies.Theolderviewgivesusourdesign,andgivesusourevolutiontoo.Ifitrefusestoseeaquasi-anthropomorphicGodmodellingeachspeciesfromwithoutasapottermodelsclay,itgivesusGodasvivifyingandindwellinginallHiscreatures--Heinthem,andtheyinHim.IfitrefusestoseeGodoutsidetheuniverse,itequallyrefusestoseeanypartoftheuniverseasoutsideGod.IfitmakestheuniversethebodyofGod,italsomakesGodthesouloftheuniverse.Thequestionatissue,then,betweentheDarwinismofErasmusDarwinandtheneo-Darwinismofhisgrandson,isnotapersonalone,noranythinglikeapersonalone.Itnotonlyinvolvestheexistenceofevolution,butitaffectstheviewwetakeoflifeandthingsinanendlessvarietyofmostinterestingandimportantways.Itisimperative,therefore,onthosewhotakeanyinterestinthesematters,toplacesidebysideintheclearestcontrasttheviewsofthosewhorefertheevolutionofspeciesmainlytoaccumulationofvariationsthathavenootherinceptionthanchance,andofthatolderschoolwhichmakesdesignperceiveanddevelopstillfurtherthegoodsthatchanceprovides.Butoverandabovethis,whichwouldbeinitselfsufficient,thehistoricalmodeofstudyinganyquestionistheonlyonewhichwillenableustocomprehenditeffectually.Thepersonalelementcannot beeliminatedfromtheconsiderationofworkswrittenbylivingpersonsforlivingpersons.Wewanttoknowwhoiswho--whomwecandependupontohavenootherendthanthemakingthingscleartohimselfandhisreaders,andwhomweshouldmistrustashavinganulterioraimonwhichheismoreintentthanonthefurtheringofourbetterunderstanding.Wewanttoknowwhoisdoinghisbesttohelpus,andwhoisonlytryingtomakeushelphim,ortobolsterupthesysteminwhichhisinterestsarevested.Thereisnothingthatwillthrowmorelightuponthesepointsthanthewayinwhichamanbehavestowardsthosewhohaveworkedinthesamefieldwithhimself,and,again,thanhisstyle.Aman"sstyle,asBuffonlongsincesaid,isthemanhimself.Bystyle,Idonot,ofcourse,meangrammarorrhetoric,butthatstyleofwhichBuffonagainsaidthatitislikehappiness,andvientdeladouceurdel"ame.Whenwefindamanconcealingworsethannullityofmeaningundersentencesthatsoundplausiblyenough,weshoulddistrusthimmuchasweshouldafellow-travellerwhomwecaughttryingtostealourwatch.Weoftencannotjudgeofthetruthorfalsehoodoffactsforourselves,butwemostofusknowenoughofhumannaturetobeabletotellagoodwitnessfromabadone.Howeverthismaybe,andwhateverwemaythinkofjudgingsystemsbythedirectnessorindirectnessofthosewhoadvancethem,biologists,havingcommittedthemselvestoorashly,wouldhavebeenmorethanhumaniftheyhadnotshownsomepiquetowardsthosewhodaredtosay,first,thatthetheoryofMessrs.DarwinandWallacewasunworkable;andsecondly,thateventhoughitwereworkableitwouldnotjustifyeitheroftheminclaimingevolution.Whenbiologistsshowpiqueatalltheygenerallyshowagooddealofpique,butpiqueornopique,theyshunnedMr.Spencer"sobjectionabovereferredtowithapersistencymoreunanimousandobstinatethanIeverremembertohaveseendisplayedevenbyprofessionaltruth-seekers.IfindnorejoindertoitfromMr.Darwinhimself,between1865whenitwasfirstputforward,and1882whenMr.Darwindied.Ithasbeensimilarly"ostrichised"byalltheleadingapologistsofDarwinism,sofaratleastasIhavebeenabletoobserve,andIhavefollowedthemattercloselyformanyyears.Mr.Spencerhasrepeatedandamplifieditinhisrecentwork,"TheFactorsofOrganicEvolution,"butitstillremainswithoutsomuchasanattemptatseriousanswer,fortheperfunctoryandillusoryremarksofMr.Wallaceattheendofhis"Darwinism"cannotbecountedassuch.ThebestproofofitsirresistibleweightisthatMr.Darwin,thoughmaintainingsilenceinrespecttoit,retreatedfromhisoriginalpositioninthedirectionthatwouldmostobviate Mr.Spencer"sobjection.Yetthisobjectionhasbeenrepeatedlyurgedbythemoreprominentanti-Charles-Darwinianauthorities,andthereisnosignthattheBritishpublicisbecominglessrigorousinrequiringpeopleeithertoreplytoobjectionsrepeatedlyurgedbymenofevenmoderateweight,ortoletjudgmentgobydefault.AsregardsMr.Darwin"sclaimtothetheoryofevolutiongenerally,Darwiniansarebeginningnowtoperceivethatthiscannotbeadmitted,andeithersaywithsomehardihoodthatMr.Darwinneverclaimedit,orafterafewsavingclausestotheeffectthatthistheoryrefersonlytotheparticularmeansbywhichevolutionhasbeenbroughtabout,implyforthwiththereafternonethelessthatevolutionisMr.Darwin"stheory.Mr.Wallacehasdonethisrepeatedlyinhisrecent"Darwinism."Indeed,Ishouldbebynomeanssurethatonthefirstpageofhispreface,inthepassageabout"Darwin"stheory,"whichIhavealreadysomewhatseverelycriticised,hewasnotintendingevolutionby"Darwin"stheory,"ifinhisprecedingparagraphhehadnotsoclearlyshownthatheknewevolutiontobeatheoryofgreatlyolderdatethanMr.Darwin"s.Thehistoryofscience--wellexemplifiedbythatofthedevelopmenttheory--isthehistoryofeminentmenwhohavefoughtagainstlightandhavebeenworsted.ThetenacitywithwhichDarwinianssticktotheiraccumulationoffortuitousvariationsisonaparwiththeliketenacityshownbytheillustriousCuvier,whodidhisbesttocrushevolutionaltogether.Italwayshasbeenthus,andalwayswillbe;norisitdesirableintheinterestsofTruthherselfthatitshouldbeotherwise.Truthislikemoney--lightlycome,lightlygo;andifshecannotholdherownagainstevengrossmisrepresentation,sheisherselfnotworthholding.MisrepresentationinthelongrunmakesTruthasmuchasitmarsher;henceourlawcourtsdonotthinkitdesirablethatpleadersshouldspeaktheirbonafideopinions,muchlessthattheyshouldprofesstodoso.Ratherleteachsidehoodwinkjudgeandjuryasbestitcan,andlettruthflashoutfromcollisionofdefenceandaccusation.Wheneithersidewillnotcollide,itisanaxiomofcontroversythatitdesirestopreventthetruthfrombeingelicited.LetusnownotethecoursesforceduponbiologistsbythedifficultiesofMr.Darwin"sdistinctivefeature.Mr.DarwinandMr.Wallace,asiswellknown,broughtthefeatureforwardsimultaneouslyandindependentlyofoneanother,butMr.Wallace alwaysbelievedinitmorefirmlythanMr.Darwindid.Mr.Darwinasayoungmandidnotbelieveinit.Hewrotebefore1889,"Nature,bymakinghabitomnipotentanditseffectshereditary,hasfittedtheFuegianfortheclimateandproductionsofhiscountry,"{21}asentencethanwhichnothingcancoincidemorefullywiththeolderviewthatuseanddisusewerethemainpurveyorsofvariations,orconflictmorefatallywithhisownsubsequentdistinctivefeature.Moreover,asIshowedinmylastworkonevolution,{22}intheperorationtohis"OriginofSpecies,"hediscardedhisaccidentalvariationsaltogether,andfellbackontheoldertheory,sothatthebodyofthe"OriginofSpecies"supportsonetheory,andtheperorationanotherthatdiffersfromittotocaelo.Finally,inhislatereditions,heretreatedindefinitelyfromhisoriginalposition,edgingalwaysmoreandmorecontinuallytowardsthetheoryofhisgrandfatherandLamarck.Thesefactsconvincemethathewasatnotimeathorough-goingDarwinian,butwasthroughoutanunconsciousLamarckian,thougheveranxioustoconcealthefactalikefromhimselfandfromhisreaders.NotsowithMr.Wallace,whowasbothmoreoutspokeninthefirstinstance,andwhohasperseveredalongthepathofWallaceismjustasMr.DarwinwithgreatersagacitywaseverontheretreatfromDarwinism.Mr.Wallace"sprofounderfaithledhimintheoutsettoplacehistheoryinfullerdaylightthanMr.Darwinwasinclinedtodo.Mr.DarwinjustwavedLamarckaside,andsaidaslittleabouthimashecould,whileinhisearliereditionsErasmusDarwinandBuffonwerenotsomuchasnamed.Mr.Wallace,onthecontrary,atonceraisedtheLamarckianspectre,anddeclareditexorcised.HesaidtheLamarckianhypothesiswas"quiteunnecessary."Thegiraffedidnot"acquireitslongneckbydesiringtoreachthefoliageofthemoreloftyshrubs,andconstantlystretchingitsneckforthispurpose,butbecauseanyvarietieswhichoccurredamongitsantitypeswithalongerneckthanusualatoncesecuredafreshrangeofpastureoverthesamegroundastheirshorter-neckedcompanions,andonthefirstscarcityoffoodwerethusenabledtooutlivethem."{23}"Whichoccurred"isevidently"whichhappenedtooccur"bysomechanceoraccidentunconnectedwithuseanddisuse.Theword"accident"isneverused,butMr.Wallacemustbecreditedwiththisinstanceofadesiretogivehisreadersachanceofperceivingthataccordingtohisdistinctivefeatureevolutionisanaffairofluck,ratherthanofcunning.WhetherhisreadersactuallydidunderstandthisasclearlyasMr.Wallacedoubtlessdesiredthattheyshould, andwhethergreaterdevelopmentatthispointwouldnothavehelpedthemtofullerapprehension,weneednotnowinquire.Whatwasgainedindistinctnessmighthavebeenlostindistinctiveness,andafterallhedidtechnicallyputusuponourguard.NeverthelesshetooatapinchtakesrefugeinLamarckism.Inrelationtothemannerinwhichtheeyesofsoles,turbots,andotherflat-fishtravelroundtheheadsoastobecomeintheendunsymmetricallyplaced,hesays:-"Theeyesofthesefisharecuriouslydistortedinorderthatbotheyesmaybeupontheupperside,wherealonetheywouldbeofanyuse....Nowifwesupposethisprocess,whichintheyoungiscompletedinafewdaysorweeks,tohavebeenspreadoverthousandsofgenerationsduringthedevelopmentofthesefish,thoseusuallysurvivingWHOSEEYESRETAINEDMOREANDMOREOFTHEPOSITIONINTOWHICHTHEYOUNGFISHTRIEDTOTWISTTHEM[italicsmine],thechangebecomesintelligible."{24}WhenitwassaidbyProfessorRayLankester--whoknowsaswellasmostpeoplewhatLamarcktaught--thatthiswas"flatLamarckism,"Mr.Wallacerejoinedthatitwasthesurvivalofthemodifiedindividualsthatdiditall,nottheeffortsoftheyoungfishtotwisttheireyes,andthetransmissiontodescendantsoftheeffectsofthoseefforts.Butthis,asIsaidinmybook,"Evolution,OldandNew,"{25}islikesayingthathorsesareswiftrunners,notbyreasonofthecauses,whatevertheywere,thatoccasionedthedirectlineoftheirprogenitorstovarytowardsevergreaterandgreaterswiftness,butbecausetheirmoreslow-goingunclesandauntsgoaway.Plainpeoplewillprefertosaythatthemaincauseofanyaccumulationoffavourablemodificationsconsistsratherinthatwhichbringsabouttheinitialvariations,andinthefactthatthesecanbeinheritedatall,thaninthefactthattheunmodifiedindividualswerenotsuccessful.Peopledonotbecomerichbecausethepoorinlargenumbersgoaway,butbecausetheyhavebeenlucky,orprovident,ormorecommonlyboth.Iftheywouldkeeptheirwealthwhentheyhavemadeittheymustexcludeluckthenceforthtotheutmostoftheirpower,andtheirchildrenmustfollowtheirexample,ortheywillsoonlosetheirmoney.Thefactthattheweakergotothewalldoesnotbringaboutthegreaterstrengthofthestronger;itistheconsequenceofthislastandnotthecause--unless,indeed,itbecontendedthataknowledgethattheweakgotothewallstimulatesthestrongtoexertionswhichtheywouldnototherwisesomake,andthattheseexertionsproduceinheritablemodifications.Eveninthiscase,however,itwouldbetheexertions,oruseanddisuse,thatwouldbe themainagentsinthemodification.ButitisnotoftenthatMr.Wallacethusbackslides.Hispresentpositionisthatacquired(asdistinguishedfromcongenital)modificationsarenotinheritedatall.Hedoesnotindeedputhisfaithprominentlyforwardandpinhimselftoitasplainlyascouldbewished,butundertheheading,"TheNon-HeredityofAcquiredCharacters,"hewritesasfollowsonp.440ofhisrecentworkinreferencetoProfessorWeismann"sTheoryofHeredity:-"Certainobservationsontheembryologyoftheloweranimalsareheldtoafforddirectproofofthistheoryofheredity,buttheyaretootechnicaltobemadecleartoordinaryreaders.Alogicalresultofthetheoryistheimpossibilityofthetransmissionofacquiredcharacters,sincethemolecularstructureofthegerm-plasmisalreadydeterminedwithintheembryo;andWeismannholdsthattherearenofactswhichreallyprovethatacquiredcharacterscanbeinherited,althoughtheirinheritancehas,bymostwriters,beenconsideredsoprobableashardlytostandinneedofdirectproof."Wehavealreadyseenintheearlierpartofthischapterthatmanyinstancesofchange,imputedtotheinheritanceofacquiredvariations,arereallycasesofselection."AndtherestoftheremarkstendtoconveytheimpressionthatMr.WallaceadoptsProfessorWeismann"sview,but,curiouslyenough,thoughIhavegonethroughMr.Wallace"sbookwithaspecialviewtothisparticularpoint,Ihavenotbeenabletofindhimdefinitelycommittinghimselfeithertotheassertionthatacquiredmodificationsneverareinherited,orthattheysometimesareso.ItisabundantlylaiddownthatMr.Darwinlaidtoomuchstressonuseanddisuse,andaresiduaryimpressionisleftthatMr.WallaceisendorsingProfessorWeismann"sview,butIhavefounditimpossibletocollectanythingthatenablesmetodefinehispositionconfidentlyinthisrespect.Thisisnaturalenough,forMr.Wallacehasentitledhisbook"Darwinism,"andaworkdenyingthatuseanddisuseproducedanyeffectcouldnotconceivablybecalledDarwinism.Mr.HerbertSpencerhasrecentlycollectedmanypassagesfrom"TheOriginofSpecies"andfrom"AnimalsandPlantsunderDomestication,"{26}whichshowhowlargely,afterall,useanddisuseenteredintoMr.Darwin"ssystem,andweknowthatinhislateryearsheattachedstillmoreimportancetothem.Itwasoutofthequestion,therefore,thatMr.Wallaceshouldcategoricallydenythattheir effectswereinheritable.Ontheotherhand,thetemptationtoadoptProfessorWeismann"sviewmusthavebeenoverwhelmingtoonewhohadbeenalreadyinclinedtominimisetheeffectsofuseanddisuse.Onthewhole,onedoesnotseewhatMr.Wallacecoulddo,otherthanwhathehasdone--unless,ofcourse,hechangedhistitle,orhadbeennolongerMr.Wallace.Besides,thankstotheworksofMr.Spencer,ProfessorMivart,ProfessorSemper,andverymanyothers,therehasforsometimebeenagrowingperceptionthattheDarwinismofCharlesDarwinwasdoomed.UseanddisusemusteitherdoevenmorethanisofficiallyrecognisedinMr.Darwin"slaterconcessions,ortheymustdoagreatdealless.IftheycandoasmuchasMr.Darwinhimselfsaidtheydid,whyshouldtheynotdomore?WhystopwhereMr.Darwindid?Andagain,whereinthenameofallthatisreasonabledidhereallystop?Hedrewnoline,andonwhatprinciplecanwesaythatsomuchispossibleaseffectofuseanddisuse,butsomuchmoreimpossible?If,asMr.Darwincontended,disusecansofarreduceanorganastorenderitrudimentary,andinmanycasesgetridofitaltogether,whycannotusecreateasmuchasdisusecandestroy,providedithasanything,nomatterhowlowinstructure,tobeginwith?Letusknowwherewestand.Ifitisadmittedthatuseanddisusecandoagooddeal,whatdoesagooddealmean?Andwhatistheproportionbetweenthesharesattributabletouseanddisuseandtonaturalselectionrespectively?Ifwecannotbetoldwithabsoluteprecision,letusatanyratehavesomethingmoredefinitethanthestatementthatnaturalselectionis"themostimportantmeansofmodification."Mr.Darwingaveusnohelpinthisrespect;andworsethanthis,hecontradictedhimselfsoflatlyastoshowthathehadverylittledefiniteideauponthesubjectatall.ThusinrespecttothewinglessnessoftheMadeirabeetleshewrote:-"Insomecaseswemighteasilyputdowntodisusemodificationsofstructure,whicharewhollyormainlyduetonaturalselection.Mr.Wollastonhasdiscoveredtheremarkablefactthat200beetles,outofthe550species(butmorearenowknown)inhabitingMadeira,aresofardeficientinwingsthattheycannotfly;andthatofthe29endemicgeneranolessthan23havealltheirspeciesinthiscondition!Severalfacts,--namely,thatbeetlesinmanypartsoftheworldarefrequentlyblownouttoseaandperish;thatthebeetlesinMadeira,asobservedbyMr.Wollaston,liemuchconcealeduntilthewindlullsandthesunshines;thattheproportionof winglessbeetlesislargerontheexposedDesertasthaninMadeiraitself;andespeciallytheextraordinaryfact,sostronglyinsistedonbyMr.Wollaston,thatcertainlargegroupsofbeetles,elsewhereexcessivelynumerous,whichabsolutelyrequiretheuseoftheirwingsareherealmostentirelyabsent;--theseseveralconsiderationsmakemebelievethatthewinglessconditionofsomanyMadeirabeetlesismainlyduetotheactionofnaturalselection,COMBINEDPROBABLYWITHDISUSE[italicsmine].Forduringmanysuccessivegenerationseachindividualbeetlewhichflewleast,eitherfromitswingshavingbeeneversolittlelessperfectlydevelopedorfromindolenthabit,willhavehadthebestchanceofsurviving,fromnotbeingblownouttosea;and,ontheotherhand,thosebeetleswhichmostreadilytooktoflightwouldoftenesthavebeenblowntosea,andthusdestroyed."{27}Weshouldliketoknow,first,somewhereabouthowmuchdisusewasabletodoafterall,andmoreoverwhy,ifitcandoanythingatall,itshouldnotbeabletodoall.Mr.Darwinsays:"Anychangeinstructureandfunctionwhichcanbeeffectedbysmallstagesiswithinthepowerofnaturalselection.""Andwhynot,"weask,"withinthepowerofuseanddisuse?"Moreover,onalaterpagewefindMr.Darwinsaying:-"ITAPPEARSPROBABLETHATDISUSEHASBEENTHEMAINAGENTINRENDERINGORGANSRUDIMENTARY[italicsmine].Itwouldatfirstleadbyslowstepstothemoreandmorecompletereductionofapart,untilatlastithasbecomerudimentary--asinthecaseoftheeyesofanimalsinhabitingdarkcaverns,andofthewingsofbirdsinhabitingoceanicislands,whichhaveseldombeenforcedbybeastsofpreytotakeflight,andhaveultimatelylostthepowerofflying.Again,anorgan,usefulundercertainconditions,mightbecomeinjuriousunderothers,ASWITHTHEWINGSOFBEETLESLIVINGONSMALLANDEXPOSEDISLANDS;andinthiscasenaturalselectionwillhaveaidedinreducingtheorgan,untilitwasrenderedharmlessandrudimentary[italicsmine]."{28}Sothatjustasanundefinedamountofuseanddisusewasintroducedontheearlierpagetosupplementtheeffectsofnaturalselectioninrespectofthewingsofbeetlesonsmallandexposedislands,wehavehereanundefinedamountofnaturalselectionintroducedtosupplementtheeffectsofuseanddisuseinrespectoftheidenticalphenomena.Intheonepassagewefindthatnaturalselectionhasbeenthemainagentinreducingthewings,thoughuseanddisusehavehadanappreciableshareintheresult;intheother,itisuse anddisusethathavebeenthemainagents,thoughanappreciableshareintheresultmustbeascribedtonaturalselection.Besides,whohasseentheunclesandauntsgoingawaywiththeuniformitythatisnecessaryforMr.Darwin"scontention?Weknowthatbirdsandinsectsdooftengetblownouttoseaandperish,butinordertoestablishMr.Darwin"spositionwewanttheevidenceofthosewhowatchedthereductionofthewingsduringthemanygenerationsinthecourseofwhichitwasbeingeffected,andwhocantestifythatall,ortheoverwhelmingmajority,ofthebeetlesbornwithfairlywell-developedwingsgotblownouttosea,whilethosealonesurvivedwhosewingswerecongenitallydegenerate.Whosawthemgo,orcanpointtoanalogouscasessoconclusiveastocompelassentfromanyequitablethinker?DarwiniansofthestampofMr.ThiseltonDyer,ProfessorRayLankester,orMr.Romanes,insistontheirpoundoffleshinthematterofirrefragabledemonstration.Theycomplainofusfornotbringingforwardsomeonewhohasbeenabletodetectthemovementofthehour-handofawatchduringasecondoftime,andwhenwefailtodoso,declaretriumphantlythatwehavenoevidencethatthereisanyconnectionbetweenthebeatingofasecondandthemovementofthehour-hand.Whenwesaythatraincomesfromthecondensationofmoistureintheatmosphere,theydemandofusarain-dropfrommoisturenotyetcondensed.Iftheystickleforproofandcavilontheninthpartofahair,astheydowhenwebringforwardwhatwedeemexcellentinstancesofthetransmissionofanacquiredcharacteristic,whymaynotwe,too,demandatanyratesomeevidencethattheunmodifiedbeetlesactuallydidalways,ornearlyalways,getblownouttosea,duringthereductionabovereferredto,andthatitistothisfact,andnottothemasterlyinactivityoftheirfathersandmothers,thattheMadeirabeetlesowetheirwinglessness?Ifwebegansticklingforproofinthisway,ouropponentswouldnotbelonginlettingusknowthatabsoluteproofisunattainableonanysubject,thatreasonablepresumptionisourhighestcertainty,andthatcryingoutfortoomuchevidenceisasbadasacceptingtoolittle.Truthislikeaphotographicsensitisedplate,whichisequallyruinedbyoverandbyunderexposure,andthejustexposureforwhichcanneverbeabsolutelydetermined.SurelyifdisusecanbecreditedwiththevastpowersinvolvedinMr.Darwin"sstatementthatithasprobably"beenthemainagentinrenderingorgansrudimentary,"nolimitsareassignabletothe accumulatedeffectsofhabit,providedtheeffectsofhabit,oruseanddisuse,aresupposed,asMr.Darwinsupposedthem,tobeinheritableatall.DarwinianshaveatlengthwokeuptothedilemmainwhichtheyareplacedbythemannerinwhichMr.Darwintriedtositonthetwostoolsofuseanddisuse,andnaturalselectionofaccidentalvariations,atthesametime.TheknellofCharles-DarwinismisrunginMr.Wallace"spresentbook,andinthegeneralperceptiononthepartofbiologiststhatwemusteitherassigntouseanddisusesuchapredominantshareinmodificationastomakeitthefeaturemostpropertobeinsistedon,ordenythatthemodifications,whetherofmindorbody,acquiredduringasinglelifetime,areevertransmittedatall.Iftheycanbeinheritedatall,theycanbeaccumulated.Iftheycanbeaccumulatedatall,theycanbeso,foranythingthatappearstothecontrary,totheextentofthespecificandgenericdifferenceswithwhichwearesurrounded.Theonlythingtodoistopluckthemoutrootandbranch:theyareasacancerwhich,ifthesmallestfibrebeleftunexcised,willgrowagain,andkillanysystemontowhichitisallowedtofasten.Mr.Wallace,therefore,maywellbeexcusedifhecastslongingeyestowardsWeismannism.AndwhatwasMr.Darwin"ssystem?Whocanmakeheadortailoftheinextricablemuddleinwhichheleftit?The"OriginofSpecies"initslatestshapeisthereductionofhedgingtoanabsurdity.HowdidMr.Darwinhimselfleaveitinthelastchapterofthelasteditionofthe"OriginofSpecies"?Hewrote:-"Ihavenowrecapitulatedthefactsandconsiderationswhichhavethoroughlyconvincedmethatspecieshavebeenmodifiedduringalongcourseofdescent.Thishasbeeneffectedchieflythroughthenaturalselectionofnumerous,successive,slight,favourablevariations;aidedinanimportantmannerbytheinheritedeffectsoftheuseanddisuseofparts,andinanunimportantmanner--thatis,inrelationtoadaptivestructureswhetherpastorpresent--bythedirectactionofexternalconditions,andbyvariationswhichseemtousinourignorancetoarisespontaneously.ItappearsthatIformerlyunderratedthefrequencyandvalueoftheselatterformsofvariation,asleadingtopermanentmodificationsofstructureindependentlyofnaturalselection."The"numerous,successive,slight,favourablevariations"abovereferredtoareintendedtobefortuitous,accidental,spontaneous.ItistheessenceofMr.Darwin"stheorythatthisshouldbeso.Mr.Darwin"ssolemnstatement,therefore,ofhistheory,afterhe haddonehisbestorhisworstwithit,is,whenstrippedofsurplusage,asfollows:-"Themodificationofspecieshasbeenmainlyeffectedbyaccumulationofspontaneousvariations;ithasbeenaidedinanimportantmannerbyaccumulationofvariationsduetouseanddisuse,andinanunimportantmannerbyspontaneousvariations;Idonotevennowthinkthatspontaneousvariationshavebeenveryimportant,butIusedoncetothinkthemlessimportantthanIdonow."Itisadiscouragingsymptomoftheagethatsuchasystemshouldhavebeensolongbelauded,anditisasignofreturningintelligencethatevenhewhohasbeenmoreespeciallythealteregoofMr.DarwinshouldhavefeltconstrainedtoclosethechapterofCharles-Darwinismasalivingtheory,andrelegateittotheimportantbutnotverycreditableplaceinhistorywhichitmusthenceforthoccupy.Itisastonishing,however,thatMr.Wallaceshouldhavequotedtheextractfromthe"OriginofSpecies"justgiven,ashehasdoneonp.412ofhis"Darwinism,"withoutbetrayinganysignthathehascaughtitsdriftlessness--fordrift,otherthanadesiretohedge,itassuredlyhasnotgot.Thebattlenowturnsonthequestionwhethermodificationsofeitherstructureorinstinctduetouseordisuseareeverinherited,orwhethertheyarenot.Cantheeffectsofhabitbetransmittedtoprogenyatall?Weknowthatmoreusuallytheyarenottransmittedtoanyperceptibleextent,butwebelievealsothatoccasionally,andindeednotinfrequently,theyareinheritedandevenintensified.Whatareourgroundsforthisopinion?ItwillbemyobjecttoputtheseforwardinthefollowingnumberoftheUniversalReview.THEDEADLOCKINDARWINISM--PARTII{29}Atthecloseofmyarticleinlastmonth"snumberoftheUniversalReview,IsaidIwouldinthismonth"sissueshowwhytheopponentsofCharles-Darwinismbelievetheeffectsofhabitsacquiredduringthelifetimeofaparenttoproduceaneffectontheirsubsequentoffspring,inspiteofthefactthatwecanrarelyfindtheeffectinanyonegeneration,oreveninseveral,sufficientlymarkedtoarrestourattention. Iwillnowshowthatoffspringcanbe,andnotveryinfrequentlyis,affectedbyoccurrencesthathaveproducedadeepimpressionontheparentorganism--theeffectproducedontheoffspringbeingsuchasleavesnodoubtthatitistobeconnectedwiththeimpressionproducedontheparent.Havingthusestablishedthegeneralproposition,Iwillproceedtothemoreparticularone--thathabits,involvinguseanddisuseofspecialorgans,withthemodificationsofstructuretherebyengendered,producealsoaneffectuponoffspring,which,thoughseldomperceptibleasregardsstructureinasingle,oreveninseveralgenerations,isneverthelesscapableofbeingaccumulatedinsuccessivegenerationstillitamountstospecificandgenericdifference.IhavefoundthefirstpointasmuchasIcantreatwithinthelimitsofthispresentarticle,andwillavailmyselfofthehospitalityoftheUniversalReviewnextmonthtodealwiththesecond.ThepropositionwhichIhavetodefendisonewhichnoonetillrecentlywouldhavequestioned,andevennow,thosewholookmostaskanceatitdonotventuretodisputeitunreservedly;theyeverynowandthenadmititasconceivable,andeveninsomecasesprobable;neverthelesstheyseektominimiseit,andtomakeoutthatthereislittleornoconnectionbetweenthegreatmassofthecellsofwhichthebodyiscomposed,andthosecellsthatarealonecapableofreproducingtheentireorganism.Thetendencyistoassigntotheselastalifeoftheirown,apartfrom,andunconnectedwiththatoftheothercellsofthebody,andtocheapenallevidencethattendstoproveanyresponseontheirparttothepasthistoryoftheindividual,andhenceultimatelyoftherace.ProfessorWeismannistheforemostexponentofthosewhotakethisline.HehasnaturallybeenwelcomedbyEnglishCharles-Darwinians;forifhisviewcanbesustained,thenitcanbecontendedthatuseanddisuseproducenotransmissibleeffect,andthegroundiscutfromunderLamarck"sfeet;if,ontheotherhand,hisviewisunfounded,theLamarckianreaction,alreadystrong,willgainstillfurtherstrength.Theissue,therefore,isimportant,andisbeingfiercelycontestedbythosewhohaveinvestedtheirallofreputationfordiscernmentinCharles-Darwiniansecurities.ProfessorWeismann"stheoryis,thatateverynewbirthapartofthesubstancewhichproceedsfromparentsandwhichgoestoformthenewembryoisnotusedupinformingthenewanimal,butremainsaparttogeneratethegerm-cells--orperhapsIshouldsay"germ- plasm"--whichthenewanimalitselfwillinduecourseissue.Contrastingthegenerallyreceivedviewwithhisown,ProfessorWeismannsaysthataccordingtothefirstofthese"theorganismproducesgerm-cellsafreshagainandagain,andthatitproducesthementirelyfromitsownsubstance."Whilebythesecond"thegerm-cellsarenolongerlookeduponastheproductoftheparent"sbody,atleastasfarastheiressentialpart--thespecificgerm-plasm--isconcerned;theyareratherconsideredassomethingwhichistobeplacedincontrastwiththetoutensembleofthecellswhichmakeuptheparent"sbody,andthegerm-cellsofsucceedinggenerationsstandinasimilarrelationtooneanotherasaseriesofgenerationsofunicellularorganismsarisingbyacontinuedprocessofcell-division."{30}Onanotherpagehewrites:-"Ibelievethathereditydependsuponthefactthatasmallportionoftheeffectivesubstanceofthegerm,thegerm-plasm,remainsunchangedduringthedevelopmentoftheovumintoanorganism,andthatthispartofthegerm-plasmservesasafoundationfromwhichthegerm-cellsoftheneworganismareproduced.Thereis,therefore,continuityofthegerm-plasmfromonegenerationtoanother.Onemightrepresentthegerm-plasmbythemetaphorofalongcreepingroot-stockfromwhichplantsariseatintervals,theselatterrepresentingtheindividualsofsuccessivegenerations."{31}Mr.Wallace,whodoesnotappeartohavereadProfessorWeismann"sessaysthemselves,butwhoseremarksare,nodoubt,ultimatelyderivedfromthesequeltothepassagejustquotedfrompage266ofProfessorWeismann"sbook,contendsthattheimpossibilityofthetransmissionofacquiredcharactersfollowsasalogicalresultfromProfessorWeismann"stheory,inasmuchasthemolecularstructureofthegerm-plasmthatwillgotoformanysucceedinggenerationisalreadypredeterminedwithinthestillunformedembryoofitspredecessor;"andWeismann,"continuesMr.Wallace,"holdsthattherearenofactswhichreallyprovethatacquiredcharacterscanbeinherited,althoughtheirinheritancehas,bymostwriters,beenconsideredsoprobableashardlytostandinneedofdirectproof."{32}ProfessorWeismann,inpassagestoonumeroustoquote,showsthatherecognisesthisnecessity,andacknowledgesthatthenon-transmissionofacquiredcharacters"formsthefoundationofthe views"setforthinhisbook,p.291.ProfessorRayLankesterdoesnotcommithimselfabsolutelytothisview,butlendsitsupportbysaying(Nature,December12,1889):"ItishardlynecessarytosaythatithasneveryetbeenshownexperimentallythatANYTHINGacquiredbyonegenerationistransmittedtothenext(puttingasidediseases)."Mr.Romanes,writinginNature,March18,1890,andopposingcertaindetailsofProfessorWeismann"stheory,sofarsupportsitastosaythat"thereisthegravestpossibledoubtlyingagainstthesuppositionthatanyreallyinheriteddecreaseisduetotheinheritedeffectsofdisuse."The"gravestpossibledoubt"shouldmeanthatMr.Romanesregardsitasamoralcertaintythatdisusehasnotransmittedeffectinreducinganorgan,anditshouldfollowthatheholdsusetohavenotransmittedeffectinitsdevelopment.Thesequel,however,makesmeuncertainhowfarMr.Romanesintendsthis,andIwouldreferthereadertothearticlewhichMr.RomaneshasjustpublishedonWeismannintheContemporaryReviewforthiscurrentmonth.TheburdenofMr.ThiseltonDyer"scontroversywiththeDukeofArgyll(seeNature,January16,1890,etseq.)wasthattherewasnoevidenceinsupportofthetransmissionofanyacquiredmodification.Theorthodoxyofscience,therefore,mustbeheldasgivingatanyrateaprovisionalsupporttoProfessorWeismann,butallofthem,includingevenProfessorWeismannhimself,shrinkfromcommittingthemselvestotheopinionthatthegerm-cellsofanyorganismsremaininallcasesunaffectedbytheeventsthatoccurtotheothercellsofthesameorganism,anduntiltheydothistheyhaveknockedthebottomoutoftheircase.FromamongthepassagesinwhichProfessorWeismannhimselfshowsadesiretohedgeImaytakethefollowingfrompage170ofhisbook:-"Iamalsofarfromassertingthatthegerm-plasmwhich,asIhold,istransmittedasthebasisofheredityfromonegenerationtoanother,isabsolutelyunchangeableortotallyuninfluencedbyforcesresidingintheorganismwithinwhichitistransformedintogerm-cells.Iamalsocompelledtoadmititasconceivablethatorganismsmayexertamodifyinginfluenceupontheirgerm-cells,andeventhatsuchaprocessistoacertainextentinevitable.Thenutritionandgrowthoftheindividualmustexercisesomeinfluenceuponitsgerm-cells..." ProfessorWeismanndoesindeedgoontosaythatthisinfluencemustbeextremelyslight,butwedonotcarehowslightthechangesproducedmaybeprovidedtheyexistandcanbetransmitted.Onanearlierpage(p.101)hesaidinregardtovariationsgenerallythatweshouldnotexpecttofindthemconspicuous;theirfrequencywouldbeenough,iftheycouldbeaccumulated.Thesameapplieshere,ifstirringeventsthatoccurtothesomaticcellscanproduceanyeffectatallonoffspring.Averysmalleffect,provideditcanberepeatedandaccumulatedinsuccessivegenerations,isallthateventhemostexactingLamarckianwillaskfor.HavingnowmadethereaderacquaintedwiththepositiontakenbytheleadingCharles-Darwinianauthorities,IwillreturntoProfessorWeismannhimself,whodeclaresthatthetransmissionofacquiredcharacters"atfirstsightcertainlyseemsnecessary,"andthat"itappearsrashtoattempttodispensewithitsaid."Hecontinues:-"Manyphenomenaonlyappeartobeintelligibleifweassumethehereditarytransmissionofsuchacquiredcharactersasthechangeswhichweascribetotheuseordisuseofparticularorgans,ortothedirectinfluenceofclimate.Furthermore,howcanweexplaininstinctashereditaryhabit,unlessithasgraduallyarisenbytheaccumulation,throughheredity,ofhabitswhichwerepractisedinsucceedinggenerations?"{33}ImaysayinpassingthatProfessorWeismannappearstosupposethattheviewofinstinctjustgivenispartoftheCharles-Darwiniansystem,foronpage889ofhisbookhesays"thatmanyobservershadfollowedDarwininexplainingthem[instincts]asinheritedhabits."ThiswasnotMr.Darwin"sownviewofthematter.Hewrote:-"Ifwesupposeanyhabitualactiontobecomeinherited--andIthinkitcanbeshownthatthisdoessometimeshappen--thentheresemblancebetweenwhatoriginallywasahabitandaninstinctbecomessocloseasnottobedistinguished...Butitwouldbethemostseriouserrortosupposethatthegreaternumberofinstinctshavebeenacquiredbyhabitinonegeneration,andthentransmittedbyinheritancetosucceedinggenerations.Itcanbeclearlyshownthatthemostwonderfulinstinctswithwhichweareacquainted,namely,thoseofthehive-beeandofmanyants,couldnotpossiblyhavebeenthusacquired."--["OriginofSpecies,"ed.,1859,p.209.]Againweread:"Domesticinstinctsaresometimesspokenofas actionswhichhavebecomeinheritedsolelyfromlong-continuedandcompulsoryhabit,butthis,Ithink,isnottrue."--Ibid.,p.214.Again:"Iamsurprisedthatnoonehasadvancedthisdemonstrativecaseofneuterinsects,againstthewell-knowndoctrineofinheritedhabit,asadvancedbyLamarck."--["OriginofSpecies,"ed.1872,p.283.]IamnotawarethatLamarckadvancedthedoctrinethatinstinctisinheritedhabit,buthemayhavedonesoinsomeworkthatIhavenotseen.Itistrue,asIhavemorethanoncepointedout,thatinthelatereditionsofthe"OriginofSpecies"itisnolonger"theMOSTserious"errortoreferinstinctsgenerallytoinheritedhabit,butitstillremains"aseriouserror,"andthisslightrelaxationofseveritydoesnotwarrantProfessorWeismanninascribingtoMr.Darwinanopinionwhichheemphaticallycondemned.Histone,however,issooffhand,thatthosewhohavelittleacquaintancewiththeliteratureofevolutionwouldhardlyguessthatheisnotmuchbetterinformedonthissubjectthanthemselves.Returningtotheinheritanceofacquiredcharacters,ProfessorWeismannsaysthatthishasneverbeenprovedeitherbymeansofdirectobservationorbyexperiment."Itmustbeadmitted,"hewrites,"thatthereareinexistencenumerousdescriptionsofcaseswhichtendtoprovethatsuchmutilationsasthelossoffingers,thescarsofwounds,&c.,areinheritedbytheoffspring,butinthesedescriptionstheprevioushistoryisinvariablyobscure,andhencetheevidencelosesallscientificvalue."TheexperimentsofM.Brown-SequardthrowsomuchlightuponthequestionatissuethatIwillquoteatsomelengthfromthesummarygivenbyMr.Darwininhis"VariationofAnimalsandPlantsunderDomestication."{34}Mr.Darwinwrites:-"Withrespecttotheinheritanceofstructuresmutilatedbyinjuriesoralteredbydisease,itwasuntillatelydifficulttocometoanydefiniteconclusion."[Thenfollowseveralcasesinwhichmutilationspractisedformanygenerationsarenotfoundtobetransmitted.]"Notwithstanding,"continuesMr.Darwin,"theaboveseveralnegativecases,wenowpossessconclusiveevidencethattheeffectsofoperationsaresometimesinherited.Dr.Brown-Sequardgivesthefollowingsummaryofhisobservationsonguinea-pigs,and thissummaryissoimportantthatIwillquotethewhole:-""1st.Appearanceofepilepsyinanimalsbornofparentshavingbeenrenderedepilepticbyaninjurytothespinalcord.""2nd.Appearanceofepilepsyalsoinanimalsbornofparentshavingbeenrenderedepilepticbythesectionofthesciaticnerve.""3rd.Achangeintheshapeoftheearinanimalsbornofparentsinwhichsuchachangewastheeffectofadivisionofthecervicalsympatheticnerve.""4th.Partialclosureoftheeyelidsinanimalsbornofparentsinwhichthatstateoftheeyelidshadbeencausedeitherbythesectionofthecervicalsympatheticnerveortheremovalofthesuperiorcervicalganglion.""5th.Exophthalmiainanimalsbornofparentsinwhichaninjurytotherestiformbodyhadproducedthatprotrusionoftheeyeball.ThisinterestingfactIhavewitnessedagoodmanytimes,andIhaveseenthetransmissionofthemorbidstateoftheeyecontinuethroughfourgenerations.Intheseanimalsmodifiedbyheredity,thetwoeyesgenerallyprotruded,althoughintheparentsusuallyonlyoneshowedexophthalmia,thelesionhavingbeenmadeinmostcasesonlyononeofthecorporarestiformia.""6th.Haematomaanddrygangreneoftheearsinanimalsbornofparentsinwhichtheseear-alterationshadbeencausedbyaninjurytotherestiformbodynearthenibofthecalamus.""7th.Absenceoftwotoesoutofthethreeofthehindleg,andsometimesofthethree,inanimalswhoseparentshadeatenuptheirhind-legtoeswhichhadbecomeanaestheticfromasectionofthesciaticnervealone,orofthatnerveandalsoofthecrural.Sometimes,insteadofcompleteabsenceofthetoes,onlyapartofoneortwoorthreewasmissingintheyoung,althoughintheparentnotonlythetoesbutthewholefootwasabsent(partlyeatenoff,partlydestroyedbyinflammation,ulceration,organgrene).""8th.Appearanceofvariousmorbidstatesoftheskinandhairoftheneckandfaceinanimalsbornofparentshavinghadsimilaralterationsinthesameparts,aseffectsofaninjurytothesciaticnerve." "ItshouldbeespeciallyobservedthatBrown-Sequardhasbredduringthirtyyearsmanythousandguinea-pigsfromanimalswhichhadnotbeenoperatedupon,andnotoneofthesemanifestedtheepileptictendency.Norhasheeverseenaguinea-pigbornwithouttoes,whichwasnottheoffspringofparentswhichhadgnawedofftheirowntoesowingtothesciaticnervehavingbeendivided.Ofthislatterfactthirteeninstanceswerecarefullyrecorded,andagreaternumberwereseen;yetBrown-Sequardspeaksofsuchcasesasoneoftherarerformsofinheritance.Itisastillmoreinterestingfact,"thatthesciaticnerveinthecongenitallytoelessanimalhasinheritedthepowerofpassingthroughallthedifferentmorbidstateswhichhaveoccurredinoneofitsparentsfromthetimeofthedivisiontillafteritsreunionwiththeperiphericend.Itisnot,therefore,simplythepowerofperforminganactionwhichisinherited,butthepowerofperformingawholeseriesofactions,inacertainorder.""InmostofthecasesofinheritancerecordedbyBrown-Sequardonlyoneofthetwoparentshadbeenoperateduponandwasaffected.Heconcludesbyexpressinghisbeliefthat"whatistransmittedisthemorbidstateofthenervoussystem,"duetotheoperationperformedontheparents."Mr.Darwinproceedstogiveotherinstancesofinheritedeffectsofmutilations:-"Withthehorsethereseemshardlyadoubtthatexostosesonthelegs,causedbytoomuchtravellingonhardroads,areinherited.Blumenbachrecordsthecaseofamanwhohadhislittlefingerontherighthandalmostcutoff,andwhichinconsequencegrewcrooked,andhissonshadthesamefingeronthesamehandsimilarlycrooked.Asoldier,fifteenyearsbeforehismarriage,losthislefteyefrompurulentophthalmia,andhistwosonsweremicrophthalmiconthesameside."ThelateProfessorRolleston,whosecompetenceasanobservernooneislikelytodispute,gaveMr.Darwintwocasesashavingfallenunderhisownnotice,oneofamanwhosekneehadbeenseverelywounded,andwhosechildwasbornwiththesamespotmarkedorscarred,andtheotherofonewhowasseverelycutuponthecheek,andwhosechildwasbornscarredinthesameplace.Mr.Darwin"sconclusionwasthat"theeffectsofinjuries,especiallywhenfollowedbydisease,orperhapsexclusivelywhenthusfollowed,areoccasionallyinherited." LetusnowseewhatProfessorWeismannhastosayagainstthis.Hewrites:-"Theonlycasesworthyofdiscussionarethewell-knownexperimentsuponguinea-pigsconductedbytheFrenchphysiologist,Brown-Sequard.Buttheexplanationofhisresultsis,inmyopinion,opentodiscussion.Inthesecaseswehavetodowiththeapparenttransmissionofartificiallyproducedmalformations...Alltheseeffectsweresaidtobetransmittedtodescendantsasfarasthefifthorsixthgeneration."Butwemustinquirewhetherthesecasesarereallyduetoheredity,andnottosimpleinfection.Inthecaseofepilepsy,atanyrate,itiseasytoimaginethatthepassageofsomespecificorganismthroughthereproductivecellsmaytakeplace,asinthecaseofsyphilis.Weare,however,entirelyignorantofthenatureoftheformerdisease.Thissuggestedexplanationmaynotperhapsapplytotheothercases;butwemustrememberthatanimalswhichhavebeensubjectedtosuchsevereoperationsuponthenervoussystemhavesustainedagreatshock,andiftheyarecapableofbreeding,itisonlyprobablethattheywillproduceweakdescendants,andsuchasareeasilyaffectedbydisease.Sucharesultdoesnot,however,explainwhytheoffspringshouldsufferfromthesamediseaseasthatwhichwasartificiallyinducedintheparents.Butthisdoesnotappeartohavebeenbyanymeansinvariablythecase.Brown-Sequardhimselfsays:"Thechangesintheeyeoftheoffspringwereofaveryvariablenature,andwereonlyoccasionallyexactlysimilartothoseobservedintheparents.""Thereisnodoubt,however,thattheseexperimentsdemandcarefulconsideration,butbeforetheycanclaimscientificrecognition,theymustbesubjectedtorigidcriticismastotheprecautionstaken,thenatureandnumberofthecontrolexperiments,&c."Uptothepresenttimesuchnecessaryconditionshavenotbeensufficientlyobserved.Therecentexperimentsthemselvesareonlydescribedinshortpreliminarynotices,which,asregardstheiraccuracy,thepossibilityofmistake,theprecautionstaken,andtheexactsuccessionofindividualsaffected,affordnodataonwhichascientificopinioncanbefounded"(pp.81,82).ThelineProfessorWeismanntakes,therefore,istodiscreditthefacts;yetonalaterpagewefindthattheexperimentshavesince beenrepeatedbyObersteiner,"whohasdescribedtheminaveryexactandunprejudicedmanner,"andthat"thefact"--(IimaginethatProfessorWeismannintends"thefacts")--"cannotbedoubted."Onastilllaterpage,however,weread:-"If,forinstance,itcouldbeshownthatartificialmutilationspontaneouslyreappearsintheoffspringwithsufficientfrequencytoexcludeallpossibilitiesofchance,thensuchproof[i.e.,thatacquiredcharacterscanbetransmitted]wouldbeforthcoming.Thetransmissionofmutilationshasbeenfrequentlyasserted,andhasbeenevenrecentlyagainbroughtforward,butallthesupposedinstanceshavebrokendownwhencarefullyexamined"(p.390).Here,then,wearetoldthatproofoftheoccasionaltransmissionofmutilationswouldbesufficienttoestablishthefact,butonp.267wefindthatnosinglefactisknownwhichreallyprovesthatacquiredcharacterscanbetransmitted,"FORTHEASCERTAINEDFACTSWHICHSEEMTOPOINTTOTHETRANSMISSIONOFARTIFICIALLYPRODUCEDDISEASESCANNOTBECONSIDEREDASPROOF"[Italicsmine.]Perhaps;butitwasmutilationinmanycasesthatProfessorWeismannpracticallyadmittedtohavebeentransmittedwhenhedeclaredthatObersteinerhadverifiedBrown-Sequard"sexperiments.ThatProfessorWeismannrecognisesthevitalimportancetohisowntheoryofthequestionwhetherornomutilationscanbetransmittedunderanycircumstances,isevidentfromapassageonp.425ofhiswork,onwhichhesays:"Itcanhardlybedoubtedthatmutilationsareacquiredcharacters;theydonotarisefromanytendencycontainedinthegerm,butaremerelythereactionofthebodyundercertainexternalinfluences.Theyare,asIhaverecentlyexpressedit,purelysomatogeniccharacters--viz.,characterswhichemanatefromthebody(soma)only,asopposedtothegerm-cells;theyare,therefore,charactersthatdonotarisefromthegermitself."Ifmutilationsmustnecessarilybetransmitted"[whichnoonethatIknowofhasmaintained],"oreveniftheymightoccasionallybetransmitted"[whichcannot,Iimagine,bereasonablyquestioned],"apowerfulsupportwouldbegiventotheLamarckianprinciple,andthetransmissionoffunctionalhypertrophyoratrophywouldthusbecomehighlyprobable."IhavenotfoundanyfurtherattemptinProfessorWeismann"sbooktodealwiththeevidenceadducedbyMr.Darwintoshowthat mutilations,iffollowedbydiseases,aresometimesinherited;andImustleaveittothereadertodeterminehowfarProfessorWeismannhasshownreasonforrejectingMr.Darwin"sconclusion.Idonot,however,dwelluponthesefactsnowasevidenceofatransmittedchangeofbodilyform,orofinstinctduetouseanddisuseorhabit;whattheyproveisthatthegerm-cellswithintheparent"sbodydonotstandapartfromtheothercellsofthebodysocompletelyasProfessorWeismannwouldhaveusbelieve,butthat,asProfessorHering,ofPrague,hasaptlysaid,theyechowithmoreorlessfrequencyandforcetotheprofounderimpressionsmadeuponothercells.ImaysaythatProfessorWeismanndoesnotmorecavalierlywaveasidethemassofevidencecollectedbyMr.Darwinandahostofotherwriters,totheeffectthatmutilationsaresometimesinherited,thandoesMr.Wallace,whosaysthat,"asregardsmutilations,itisgenerallyadmittedthattheyarenotinherited,andthereisampleevidenceonthispoint."Itisindeedgenerallyadmittedthatmutilations,whennotfollowedbydisease,areveryrarely,ifever,inherited;andMr.Wallace"sappealtothe"ampleevidence"whichheallegestoexistonthishead,ismuchasthoughheshouldsaythatthereisampleevidencetoshowthatthedaysarelongerinsummerthaninwinter."Nevertheless,"hecontinues,"afewcasesofapparentinheritanceofmutilationshavebeenrecorded,andthese,iftrustworthy,aredifficultiesinthewayofthetheory."..."Theoften-quotedcaseofadiseaseinducedbymutilationbeinginherited(Brown-Sequard"sepilepticguinea-pigs)hasbeendiscussedbyProfessorWeismannandshowntobenotconclusive.Themutilationitself--asectionofcertainnerves--wasneverinherited,buttheresultingepilepsy,orageneralstateofweakness,deformity,orsores,wassometimesinherited.Itis,however,possiblethatthemereinjuryintroducedandencouragedthegrowthofcertainmicrobes,which,spreadingthroughtheorganism,sometimesreachedthegerm-cells,andthustransmittedadiseasedconditiontotheoffspring."{35}Isupposeamicrobewhichmadeguinea-pigseattheirtoesoffwascommunicatedtothegerm-cellsofanunfortunateguinea-pigwhichhadbeenalreadymicrobedbyit,andmadetheoffspringbiteitstoesofftoo.Themicrobehasagooddealtoanswerfor.OnthecaseofthedeteriorationofhorsesintheFalklandIslandsafterafewgenerations,ProfessorWeismannsays:- "Insuchacasewehaveonlytoassumethattheclimatewhichisunfavourable,andthenutrimentwhichisinsufficientforhorses,affectnotonlytheanimalasawholebutalsoitsgerm-cells.Thiswouldresultinthediminutioninsizeofthegerm-cells,theeffectsupontheoffspringbeingstillfurtherintensifiedbytheinsufficientnourishmentsuppliedduringgrowth.Butsuchresultswouldnotdependuponthetransmissionbythegerm-cellsofcertainpeculiaritiesduetotheunfavourableclimate,whichonlyappearinthefull-grownhorse."ButProfessorWeismanndoesnotlikesuchcases,andadmitsthathecannotexplainthefactsinconnectionwiththeclimaticvarietiesofcertainbutterflies,except"bysupposingthepassiveacquisitionofcharactersproducedbythedirectinfluenceofclimate."Neverthelessinhisnextparagraphbutonehecallssuchcases"doubtful,"andproposesthatforthemomenttheyshouldbeleftaside.Heaccordinglyleavesthem,butIhavenotyetfoundwhatothermomentheconsideredauspiciousforreturningtothem.Hetellsusthat"newexperimentswillbenecessary,andthathehashimselfalreadybeguntoundertakethem."Perhapshewillgiveustheresultsoftheseexperimentsinsomefuturebook--forthattheywillprovesatisfactorytohimcanhardly,Ithink,bedoubted.Hewrites:-"Leavingononeside,forthemoment,thesedoubtfulandinsufficientlyinvestigatedcases,wemaystillmaintainthattheassumptionthatchangesinducedbyexternalconditionsintheorganismasawholearecommunicatedtothegerm-cellsafterthemannerindicatedinDarwin"shypothesisofpangenesis,iswhollyunnecessaryfortheexplanationofthesephenomena.Stillwecannotexcludethepossibilityofsuchatransmissionoccasionallyoccurring,forevenifthegreaterpartoftheeffectsmustbeattributabletonaturalselection,theremightbeasmallerpartincertaincaseswhichdependsonthisexceptionalfactor."IrepeatedlytriedtounderstandMr.Darwin"stheoryofpangenesis,andsooftenfailedthatIlongsincegavethematterupindespair.IdidsowiththelessunwillingnessbecauseIsawthatnooneelseappearedtounderstandthetheory,andthatevenMr.Darwin"swarmestadherentsregardeditwithdisfavour.IfMr.Darwinmeansthateverycellofthebodythrowsoffminuteparticlesthatfindtheirwaytothegerm-cells,andhenceintothenewembryo,thisisindeeddifficultofcomprehensionandbelief.Ifhemeansthatthe rhythmsorvibrationsthatgoonceaselesslyineverycellofthebodycommunicatethemselveswithgreaterorlessaccuracyorperturbation,asthecasemaybe,tothecellsthatgotoformoffspring,andthatsincethecharacteristicsofmatteraredeterminedbyvibrations,incommunicatingvibrationstheyineffectcommunicatematter,accordingtotheviewputforwardinthelastchapterofmybook"LuckorCunning,"{36}thenwecanbetterunderstandit.Ihavenothing,however,todowithMr.Darwin"stheoryofpangenesisbeyondavoidingthepretencethatIunderstandeitherthetheoryitselforwhatProfessorWeismannsaysaboutit;allIamconcernedwithisProfessorWeismann"sadmission,madeimmediatelyafterwards,thatthesomaticcellsmay,andperhapssometimesdo,impartcharacteristicstothegerm-cells."Acompleteandsatisfactoryrefutationofsuchanopinion,"hecontinues,"cannotbebroughtforwardatpresent";soIsupposewemustwaitalittlelonger,butinthemeantimewemayagainremarkthat,ifweadmitevenoccasionalcommunicationofchangesinthesomaticcellstothegerm-cells,wehaveletinthethinendofthewedge,asMr.Darwindidwhenhesaidthatuseanddisusedidagooddealtowardsmodification.Buffon,inhisfirstvolumeontheloweranimals,{37}dwellsontheimpossibilityofstoppingthebreachoncemadebyadmissionofvariationatall."Ifthepoint,"hewrites,"wereoncegained,thatamonganimalsandvegetablestherehadbeen,Idonotsayseveralspecies,butevenasingleone,whichhadbeenproducedinthecourseofdirectdescentfromanotherspecies;if,forexample,itcouldbeonceshownthattheasswasbutadegenerationfromthehorse--thenthereisnofartherlimittobesettothepowerofNature,andweshouldnotbewronginsupposingthatwithsufficienttimeshecouldhaveevolvedallotherorganisedformsfromoneprimordialtype."Sowithuseanddisuseandtransmissionofacquiredcharacteristicsgenerally--onceshowthatasinglestructureorinstinctisduetohabitinprecedinggenerations,andwecanimposenolimitontheresultsachievablebyaccumulationinthisrespect,norshallwebewronginconceivingitaspossiblethatallspecialisation,whetherofstructureorinstinct,maybedueultimatelytohabit.Howfarthiscanbeshowntobeprobableis,ofcourse,anothermatter,butIamnotimmediatelyconcernedwiththis;allIamconcernedwithnowistoshowthatthegerm-cellsnotunfrequentlybecomepermanentlyaffectedbyeventsthathavemadeaprofoundimpressionuponthesomaticcells,insofarthattheytransmitanobviousreminiscenceoftheimpressiontotheembryoswhichtheygo subsequentlytowardsforming.Thisisallthatisnecessaryformycase,andIdonotfindthatProfessorWeismann,afterall,disputesit.Buthere,again,comesthedifficultyofsayingwhatProfessorWeismanndoes,andwhathedoesnot,dispute.OnemomenthegivesallthatiswantedfortheLamarckiancontention,thenexthedeniescommon-sensethebarenecessariesoflife.ForamoreexhaustiveanddetailedcriticismofProfessorWeismann"sposition,IwouldreferthereadertoanadmirablycleararticlebyMr.SidneyH.Vines,whichappearedinNature,October24,1889.IcanonlysaythatwhilereadingProfessorWeismann"sbook,IfeelasIdowhenIreadthoseofMr.Darwin,andofagoodmanyotherwritersonbiologywhomIneednotname.Ibecomelikeaflyinawindow-pane.Iseethesunshineandfreedombeyond,andbuzzupanddowntheirpages,everhopefultogetthroughthemtothefreshairwithout,buteverkeptbackbyamysterioussomething,whichIfeelbutcannoteithergrasporsee.ItwasnotthuswhenIreadBuffon,ErasmusDarwin,andLamarck;itisnotthuswhenIreadsucharticlesasMr.Vines"sjustreferredto.Loveofself-display,andthewantofsinglenessofmindthatitinevitablyengenders--these,Isuppose,arethesinsthatglazethecasementsofmostmen"sminds;andfromthese,nomatterhowhardhetriestofreehimself,norhowmuchhedespisesthem,whoisaltogetherexempt?Finally,then,whenweconsidertheimmensemassofevidencereferredtobriefly,butsufficiently,byMr.CharlesDarwin,andreferredtowithoutother,forthemostpart,thanoff-handdismissalbyProfessorWeismanninthelastoftheessaysthathavebeenrecentlytranslated,Idonotseehowanyonewhobringsanunbiasedmindtothequestioncanhesitateastothesideonwhichtheweightoftestimonyinclines.ProfessorWeismanndeclaresthat"thetransmissionofmutilationsmaybedismissedintothedomainoffable."{38}Ifso,then,whomcanwetrust?WhatistheuseofscienceatalliftheconclusionsofamanascompetentasIreadilyadmitMr.Darwintohavebeen,ontheevidencelaidbeforehimfromcountlesssources,istobesetasidelightlyandwithoutgivingtheclearestandmostcogentexplanationofthewhyandwherefore?Whenweseeaperson"ostrichising"theevidencewhichhehastomeet,asclearlyasIbelieveProfessorWeismanntobedoing,weshallinninecasesoutoftenberightinsupposingthatheknowstheevidencetobetoostrongforhim. THEDEADLOCKINDARWINISM--PARTIIINowletmereturntotherecentdivisionofbiologicalopinionintotwomainstreams--LamarckismandWeismannismBothLamarckiansandWeismannists,nottomentionmankindingeneral,admitthatthebetteradaptedtoitssurroundingsalivingformmaybe,themorelikelyitistooutbreeditscompeers.Theworldatlarge,again,needsnottobetoldthatthenormalcourseisnotunfrequentlydeflectedthroughthefortunesofwar;nevertheless,accordingtoLamarckiansandErasmus-Darwinians,habitualeffort,guidedbyever-growingintelligence--thatistosay,bycontinuedincreaseofpowerinthematterofknowingourlikesanddislikes--hasbeensomuchthemainfactorthroughoutthecourseoforganicdevelopment,thattherest,thoughnotlostsightof,maybeallowedtogowithoutsaying.According,ontheotherhand,toextremeCharles-DarwiniansandWeismannists,habit,effortandintelligenceacquiredduringtheexperienceofanyonelifegoesfornothing.Notevenalittlefractionofitendurestothebenefitofoffspring.Itdieswithhiminwhomitisacquired,andtheheirsofaman"sbodytakenointeresttherein.Tostatethisdoctrineistoarouseinstinctiveloathing;itismyfortunatetasktomaintainthatsuchanightmareofwasteanddeathisasbaselessasitisrepulsive.ThesplitinbiologicalopinionoccasionedbythedeadlocktowhichCharles-Darwinismhasbeenreduced,thoughcomparativelyrecent,widensrapidly.TenyearsagoLamarck"snamewasmentionedonlyasabywordforextravagance;now,wecannottakeupanumberofNaturewithoutseeinghowhotthecontentionisbetweenhisfollowersandthoseofWeismann.Thismustbereferred,asIimpliedearlier,togrowingperceptionthatMr.DarwinshouldeitherhavegonefarthertowardsLamarckismornotsofar.Inadmittinguseanddisuseasfreelyashedid,hegaveLamarckiansleveragefortheoverthrowofasystembasedostensiblyontheaccumulationoffortunateaccidents.Inassigningthelion"sshareofdevelopmenttotheaccumulationoffortunateaccidents,hetemptedfortuitiststotrytocutthegroundfromunderLamarck"sfeetbydenyingthattheeffectsofuseanddisusecanbeinheritedatall.WhenthepublichadoncegottounderstandwhatLamarckhadintended,andwhereinMr.CharlesDarwinhaddifferedfromhim,itbecameimpossibleforCharles-Darwinianstoremainwheretheywere,norisiteasytoseewhatcoursewasopentothemexcepttocastaboutforatheoryby whichtheycouldgetridofuseanddisusealtogether.Weismannism,therefore,istheinevitableoutcomeofthestraitstowhichCharles-Darwinianswerereducedthroughthewayinwhichtheirleaderhadhaltedbetweentwoopinions.ThisiswhyCharles-Darwinians,fromProfessorHuxleydownwards,havekeptthedifferencebetweenLamarck"sopinionsandthoseofMr.Darwinsomuchinthebackground.UnwillingnesstomakethisunderstoodisnowheremanifestedmoreclearlythaninDr.FrancisDarwin"slifeofhisfather.InthisworkLamarckissneeredatonceortwice,andtoldtogoaway,butthereisnoattempttostatethetwocasessidebyside;fromwhich,asfromnotalittleelse,IconcludethatDr.FrancisDarwinhasdescendedfromhisfatherwithsingularlylittlemodification.Proceedingtotheevidenceforthetransmissionsofacquiredhabits,Iwillquotetworecentlyadducedexamplesfromamongthemanythathavebeencrediblyattested.ThefirstwascontributedtoNature(March14,1889)byProfessorMarcusM.Hartog,whowrote:-"A.B.ismoderatelymyopicandveryastigmaticinthelefteye;extremelymyopicintheright.Asthelefteyegavesuchbadimagesfornearobjects,hewascompelledinchildhoodtomaskit,andacquiredthehabitofleaninghisheadonhisleftarmforwriting,soastoblindthateye,orofrestingthelefttempleandeyeonthehand,withtheelbowonthetable.Attheageoffifteentheeyeswereequalisedbytheuseofsuitablespectacles,andhesoonlostthehabitcompletelyandpermanently.Heisnowthefatheroftwochildren,aboyandagirl,whosevision(testedrepeatedlyandfully)isemmetropicinbotheyes,sothattheyhavenotinheritedthecongenitalopticaldefectoftheirfather.Allthesame,theyhavebothoftheminheritedhisearlyacquiredhabit,andneedconstantwatchfulnesstopreventtheirhidingthelefteyewhenwriting,byrestingtheheadontheleftforearmorhand.Imitationisherequiteoutofthequestion."Consideringthateveryhabitinvolveschangesintheproportionaldevelopmentofthemuscularandosseoussystems,andhenceprobablyofthenervoussystemalso,theimportanceofinheritedhabits,naturaloracquired,cannotbeoverlookedinthegeneraltheoryofinheritance.IamfullyawarethatIshallbeaccusedofflatLamarckism,butanicknameisnotanargument."TothisProfessorRayLankesterrejoined(Nature,March21,1889):- "Itisnotunusualforchildrentoresttheheadontheleftforearmorhandwhenwriting,andIdoubtwhethermuchvaluecanbeattachedtothecasedescribedbyProfessorHartog.Thekindofobservationwhichhislettersuggestsis,however,likelytoleadtoresultseitherfororagainstthetransmissionofacquiredcharacters.Anoldfriendofminelosthisrightarmwhenaschoolboy,andhaseversincewrittenwithhisleft.Hehasalargefamilyandgrandchildren,butIhavenotheardofanyofthemshowingadispositiontoleft-handedness."FromNature(March21,1889)ItakethesecondinstancecommunicatedbyMr.J.Jenner-Weir,whowroteasfollows:-"Mr.MarcusM.Hartog"sletterofMarch6th,insertedinlastweek"snumber(p.462),isaveryvaluablecontributiontothegrowingevidencethatacquiredcharactersmaybeinherited.Ihavelongheldtheviewthatsuchisoftenthecase,andIhavemyselfobservedseveralinstancesofthe,atleastImaysay,apparentfact."ManyyearsagotherewasaveryfinemaleoftheCapramegacerosinthegardensoftheZoologicalSociety.Torestrainthisanimalfromjumpingoverthefenceoftheenclosureinwhichhewasconfined,along,andheavychainwasattachedtothecollarroundhisneck.Hewasconstantlyinthehabitoftakingthischainupbyhishornsandmovingitfromonesidetoanotheroverhisback;indoingthishethrewhisheadverymuchback,hishornsbeingplacedinalinewiththeback.Thehabithadbecomequitechronicwithhim,andwasverytiresometolookat.Iwasverymuchastonishedtoobservethathisoffspringinheritedthehabit,andalthoughitwasnotnecessarytoattachachaintotheirnecks,Ihaveoftenseenayoungmalethrowinghishornsoverhisbackandshiftingfromsidetosideanimaginarychain.Theactionwasexactlythesameasthatofhisancestor.ThecaseofthekidofthisgoatappearstometobeparalleltothatofchildandparentgivenbyMr.Hartog.IthinkatthetimeImadethisobservationIinformedMr.Darwinofthefactbyletter,andhedidnotaccusemeof"flatLamarckism.""Tothislettertherewasnorejoinder.Itmaybesaid,ofcourse,thattheactionoftheoffspringineachofthesecaseswasduetoaccidentalcoincidenceonly.Anythingcanbesaid,butthequestionturnsnotonwhatanadvocatecansay,butonwhatareasonablyintelligentanddisinterestedjurywillbelieve;grantedtheymight bemistakeninacceptingtheforegoingstories,buttheworldofscience,likethatofcommerce,isbasedonthefaithorconfidence,whichbothcreatesandsustainsthem.Indeedtheuniverseitselfisbutthecreatureoffaith,forassuredlyweknowofnootherfoundation.Thereisnothingsogenerallyandreasonablyaccepted--notevenourowncontinuedidentity--butquestionsmayberaisedaboutitthatwillshortlyproveunanswerable.Wecannotsotesteverysixpencegivenusinchangeastobesurethatwenevertakeabadone,andhadbettersometimesbecheatedthanreducecautiontoanabsurdity.Moreover,wehaveseenfromtheevidencegiveninmyprecedingarticlethatthegerm-cellsissuingfromaparent"sbodycan,anddo,respondtoprofoundimpressionsmadeonthesomatic-cells.Thisbeingso,whatimpressionsaremoreprofound,whatneedsengagemoreassiduousattentionthanthoseconnectedwithself-protection,theprocuringoffood,andthecontinuationofthespecies?Ifthemereanxietyconnectedwithanill-healingwoundinflictedonbutonegenerationissometimesfoundtohavesoimpressedthegerm-cellsthattheyhanddownitsscarstooffspring,howmuchmoreshallnotanxietiesthathavedirectedactionofallkindsfrombirthtilldeath,notinonegenerationonlybutinalongerseriesofgenerationsthanthemindcanrealisetoitself,modify,andindeedcontrol,theorganisationofeveryspecies?IseeProfessorS.H.Vines,inthearticleonWeismann"stheoryreferredtoinmyprecedingarticle,saysMr.Darwin"heldthatitwasnotthesuddenvariationsduetoalteredexternalconditionswhichbecomepermanent,butthoseslowlyproducedbywhathetermed"theaccumulativeactionofchangedconditionsoflife.""NothingcanbemoresoundlyLamarckian,andnothingshouldmoreconclusivelyshowthat,whateverelseMr.Darwinwas,hewasnotaCharles-Darwinian;butwhatevidenceotherthaninferentialcanfromthenatureofthecasebeadducedinsupportofthis,asIbelieve,perfectlycorrectjudgment?NoneknowbetterthantheywhoclamourfordirectevidencethattheirmasterwasrightintakingthepositionassignedtohimbyProfessorVines,thattheycannotreasonablylookforit.Withus,aswiththemselves,modificationproceedsverygradually,anditviolatesourprinciplesasmuchastheirowntoexpectvisiblepermanentprogress,inanysinglegeneration,orindeedinanynumberofgenerationsofwildspecieswhichwehaveyethadtimetoobserve.Occasionallywecanfindsuchcases,asinthatofBranchipusstagnalis,quotedbyMr.Wallace,orinthatoftheNewZealandKeawhoseskin,IwasassuredbythelateSirJuliusvonHaast,hasalreadybeenmodifiedasaconsequenceofitschangeoffood.Herewecanshowthatinevena fewgenerationsstructureismodifiedunderchangedconditionsofexistence,butaswebelievethesecasestooccurcomparativelyrarely,soitisstillmorerarelythattheyoccurwhenandwherewecanwatchthem.Natureiseminentlyconservative,andfixityoftype,evenunderconsiderablechangeofconditions,issurelymoreimportantforthewell-beingofanyspeciesthananover-readypowerofadaptationto,itmaybe,passingchanges.Therecouldbenosteadyprogressifeachgenerationwerenotmainlyboundbythetraditionsofthosethathavegonebeforeit.Itisevolutionandnotincessantrevolutionthatbothpartiesareupholding;andthisbeingso,rapidvisiblemodificationmustbetheexception,nottherule.Ihavequoteddirectevidenceadducedbycompetentobservers,whichis,Ibelieve,sufficienttoestablishthefactthatoffspringcanbeandissometimesmodifiedbytheacquiredhabitsofaprogenitor.Iwillnowproceedtothestillmore,asitappearstome,cogentproofaffordedbygeneralconsiderations.What,letmeask,aretheprincipalphenomenaofheredity?Theremustbephysicalcontinuitybetweenparent,orparents,andoffspring,sothattheoffspringis,asErasmusDarwinwellsaid,akindofelongationofthelifeoftheparent.ErasmusDarwinputthemattersowellthatImayaswellgivehiswordsinfull;hewrote:-"Owingtotheimperfectionoflanguagetheoffspringistermedanewanimal,butisintruthabranchorelongationoftheparent,sinceapartoftheembryonanimalis,orwas,apartoftheparent,andtherefore,instrictlanguage,cannotbesaidtobeentirelynewatthetimeofitsproduction;andthereforeitmayretainsomeofthehabitsoftheparentsystem."Attheearliestperiodofitsexistencetheembryonwouldseemtoconsistofalivingfilamentwithcertaincapabilitiesofirritation,sensation,volition,andassociation,andalsowithsomeacquiredhabitsorpropensitiespeculiartotheparent;theformeroftheseareincommonwithotheranimals;thelatterseemtodistinguishorproducethekindofanimal,whethermanorquadruped,withthesimilarityoffeatureorformtotheparent."{39}Thosewhoacceptevolutioninsistonunbrokenphysicalcontinuitybetweentheearliestknownlifeandourselves,sothatwebothareandarenotpersonallyidenticalwiththeunicellularorganismfromwhichwehavedescendedinthecourseofmanymillionsofyears, exactlyinthesamewayasanoctogenarianbothisandisnotpersonallyidenticalwiththemicroscopicimpregnateovumfromwhichhegrewup.Everythingbothisandisnot.Thereisnosuchthingasstrictidentitybetweenanytwothingsinanytwoconsecutiveseconds.Instrictnesstheyareidenticalandyetnotidentical,sothatinstrictnesstheyviolateafundamentalruleofstrictness--namely,thatathingshallneverbeitselfandnotitselfatoneandthesametime;wemustchoosebetweenlogicanddealinginapracticalspiritwithtimeandspace;itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatlogic,inspiteoftheshowofrespectoutwardlypaidtoher,istoldtostandasidewhenpeoplecometopractice.Inpracticeidentityisgenerallyheldtoexistwherecontinuityisonlybrokenslowlyandpiecemeal,nevertheless,thatoccasionalperiodsofevenrapidchangearenotheldtobaridentity,appearsfromthefactthatnoonedeniesthistoholdbetweenthemicroscopicallysmallimpregnateovumandthebornchildthatspringsfromit,noryet,therefore,betweentheimpregnateovumandtheoctogenarianintowhichthechildgrows;forbothovumandoctogenarianareheldpersonallyidenticalwiththenewbornbaby,andthingsthatareidenticalwiththesameareidenticalwithoneanother.Thefirst,then,andmostimportantelementofheredityisthatthereshouldbeunbrokencontinuity,andhencesamenessofpersonality,betweenparentsandoffspring,inneithermorenorlessthanthesamesenseasthatinwhichanyothertwopersonalitiesaresaidtobethesame.Therepetition,therefore,ofitsdevelopmentalstagesbyanyoffspringmustberegardedassomethingwhichtheembryorepeatingthemhasalreadydoneonce,inthepersonofoneorotherparent;andifonce,then,asmanytimesastherehavebeengenerationsbetweenanygivenembryonowrepeatingit,andthepointinlifefromwhichwestarted--say,forexample,theamoeba.Inthecaseofasexuallyandsexuallyproducedorganismsalike,theoffspringmustbeheldtocontinuethepersonalityoftheparentorparents,andhenceontheoccasionofeveryfreshdevelopment,toberepeatingsomethingwhichinthepersonofitsparentorparentsithasdoneonce,andifonce,thenanynumberoftimes,already.Itisobvious,therefore,thatthegerm-plasm(orwhateverthefancywordforitmaybe)ofanyonegenerationisasphysicallyidenticalwiththegerm-plasmofitspredecessorasanytwothingscanbe.ThedifferencebetweenProfessorWeismannand,wewillsay,Heringiansconsistsinthefactthatthefirstmaintainsthenew germ-plasmwhenonthepointofrepeatingitsdevelopmentalprocessestotakepracticallynocognisanceofanythingthathashappenedtoitsincethelastoccasiononwhichitdevelopeditself;whilethelattermaintainthatoffspringtakesmuchthesamekindofaccountofwhathashappenedtoitinthepersonsofitsparentssincethelastoccasiononwhichitdevelopeditself,aspeopleinordinarylifetakeofthingsthathappentothem.Indailylifepeopleletfairlynormalcircumstancescomeandgowithoutmuchheedasmattersofcourse.Iftheyhavebeenluckytheymakeanoteofitandtrytorepeattheirsuccess.Iftheyhavebeenunfortunatebuthaverecoveredrapidlytheysoonforgetit;iftheyhavesufferedlonganddeeplytheygrizzleoveritandarescaredandscarredbyitforalongtime.Thequestionisoneofcognisanceornon-cognisanceonthepartofthenewgerms,ofthemoreprofoundimpressionsmadeonthemwhiletheywereonewiththeirparents,betweentheoccasionoftheirlastprecedingdevelopment,andthenewcourseonwhichtheyareabouttoenter.ThosewhoacceptthetheoryputforwardindependentlybyProfessorHeringofPrague(whoseworkonthissubjectistranslatedinmybook,"UnconsciousMemory"){40}andbymyselfin"LifeandHabit,"{41}believeincognizance,asdoLamarckiansgenerally.Weismannites,andwiththemtheorthodoxyofEnglishscience,findnon-cognisancemoreacceptable.IftheHeringianviewisaccepted,thatheredityisonlyamodeofmemory,andanextensionofmemoryfromonegenerationtoanother,thentherepetitionofitsdevelopmentbyanyembryothusbecomesonlytherepetitionofalessonlearnedbyrote;and,asIhaveelsewheresaid,ourviewoflifeissimplifiedbyfindingthatitisnolongeranequationof,say,ahundredunknownquantities,butofninety-nineonly,inasmuchastwooftheunknownquantitiesprovetobesubstantiallyidentical.Inthiscasetheinheritanceofacquiredcharacteristicscannotbedisputed,foritispostulatedinthetheorythateachembryotakesnoteof,remembersandisguidedbytheprofounderimpressionsmadeuponitwhileinthepersonsofitsparents,betweenitspresentandlastprecedingdevelopment.Tomaintainthisistomaintainuseanddisusetobethemainfactorsthroughoutorganicdevelopment;todenyitistodenythatuseanddisusecanhaveanyconceivableeffect.ForthedetailedreasonswhichledmetomyownconclusionsImustreferthereadertomybooks,"LifeandHabit"{42}and"UnconsciousMemory,"{42}theconclusionsofwhichhavebeenoftenadopted,butnever,thatIhaveseen,disputed.Abriefresumeoftheleadingpointsintheargumentisallthatspacewillhereallowmetogive. Wehaveseenthatitisafirstrequirementofhereditythatthereshallbephysicalcontinuitybetweenparentsandoffspring.Thisholdsgoodwithmemory.Theremustbecontinuedidentitybetweenthepersonrememberingandthepersontowhomthethingthatisrememberedhappened.Wecannotrememberthingsthathappenedtosomeoneelse,andinourabsence.Wecanonlyrememberhavingheardofthem.Wehaveseen,however,thatthereisasmuchbona-fidesamenessofpersonalitybetweenparentsandoffspringuptothetimeatwhichtheoffspringquitstheparent"sbody,asthereisbetweenthedifferentstatesoftheparenthimselfatanytwoconsecutivemoments;theoffspringtherefore,beingoneandthesamepersonwithitsprogenitorsuntilitquitsthem,canbeheldtorememberwhathappenedtothemwithin,ofcourse,thelimitationstowhichallmemoryissubject,asmuchastheprogenitorscanrememberwhathappenedearliertothemselves.Whetheritdoessoremembercanonlybesettledbyobservingwhetheritactsaslivingbeingscommonlydowhentheyareactingunderguidanceofmemory.Iwillendeavourtoshowthat,thoughheredityandhabitbasedonmemorygoaboutindifferentdresses,yetifwecatchthemseparately--fortheyareneverseentogether--andstripthemthereisnotamolenorstrawberry-mark,nortricknorleeroftheone,butwefinditintheotheralso.Whatarethemolesandstrawberry-marksofhabitualaction,oractionsrememberedandthusrepeated?First,themoreoftenwerepeatthemthemoreeasilyandunconsciouslywedothem.Lookatreading,writing,walking,talking,playingthepiano,&c.;thelongerwehavepractisedanyoneoftheseacquiredhabits,themoreeasily,automaticallyandunconsciously,weperformit.Look,ontheotherhand,broadly,atthethreepointstowhichIcalledattentionin"LifeandHabit":-I.Thatwearemostconsciousofandhavemostcontroloversuchhabitsasspeech,theuprightposition,theartsandsciences--whichareacquisitionspeculiartothehumanrace,alwaysacquiredafterbirth,andnotcommontoourselvesandanyancestorwhohadnotbecomeentirelyhuman.II.Thatwearelessconsciousofandhavelesscontrolovereatinganddrinking[providedthefoodbenormal],swallowing,breathing,seeing,andhearing--whichwereacquisitionsofourprehumanancestry,andforwhichwehadprovidedourselveswithallthenecessaryapparatusbeforewesawlight,butwhicharestill, geologicallyspeaking,recent.III.Thatwearemostunconsciousofandhaveleastcontroloverourdigestionandcirculation--powerspossessedevenbyourinvertebrateancestry,and,geologicallyspeaking,ofextremeantiquity.Ihaveputtheforegoingverybroadly,butenoughisgiventoshowthereaderthegistoftheargument.Letitbenotedthatdisturbanceanddeparture,toanyseriousextent,fromnormalpracticetendstoinduceresumptionofconsciousnesseveninthecaseofsucholdhabitsasbreathing,seeing,andhearing,digestionandthecirculationoftheblood.Soitiswithhabitualactionsingeneral.Letaplayerbeneversoproficientonanyinstrument,hewillbeputoutifthenormalconditionsunderwhichheplaysaretoowidelydepartedfrom,andwillthendoconsciously,ifindeedhecandoitatall,whathehadhithertobeendoingunconsciously.Itisanaxiomasregardsactionsacquiredafterbirth,thatweneverdothemautomaticallysaveastheresultoflongpractice;thestagesinthecaseofanyacquiredfacility,theinceptionofwhichwehavebeenabletowatch,haveinvariablybeenfromanothingnessofignorantimpotencetoalittlesomethingnessofhighlyself-conscious,arduousperformance,andthencetotheunselfconsciousnessofeasymastery.IsawoneyearapoorblindladofabouteighteensittingonawallbythewaysideatVarese,playingtheconcertinawithhiswholebody,andsnortinglikeachild.Thenextyeartheboynolongersnorted,andheplayedwithhisfingersonly;theyearafterthatheseemedhardlytoknowwhetherhewasplayingornot,itcamesoeasilytohim.Iknownoexceptiontothisrule.Whereistheintricateandatonetimedifficultartinwhichperfectautomaticeasehasbeenreachedexceptastheresultoflongpractice?If,then,whereverwecantracethedevelopmentofautomatismwefindittohavetakenthiscourse,isitnotmostreasonabletoinferthatithastakenthesameevenwhenithasriseninregionsthatarebeyondourken?Oughtwenot,wheneverweseeadifficultactionperformed,automaticallytosuspectantecedentpractice?Grantedthatwithouttheconsiderationsinregardtoidentitypresentedaboveitwouldnothavebeeneasytoseewhereababyofadayoldcouldhavehadthepracticewhichenablesittodoasmuchasitdoesunconsciously,butevenwithouttheseconsiderationsitwouldhavebeenmoreeasytosupposethatthenecessaryopportunitieshadnotbeenwanting,thanthattheeasyperformancecouldhavebeengainedwithoutpracticeandmemory. WhenIwrote"LifeandHabit"(originallypublishedin1877)Isaidinslightlydifferentwords:-"Shallwesaythatababyofadayoldsucks(whichinvolvesthewholeprincipleofthepumpandhenceaprofoundpracticalknowledgeofthelawsofpneumaticsandhydrostatics),digests,oxygenisesitsblood--millionsofyearsbeforeanyonehaddiscoveredoxygen--seesandhears,operationsthatinvolveanunconsciousknowledgeofthefactsconcerningopticsandacousticscomparedwithwhichtheconsciousdiscoveriesofNewtonareinsignificant--shallwesaythatababycandoallthesethingsatonce,doingthemsowellandsoregularlywithoutbeingevenabletogivethemattention,andyetwithoutmistake,andshallwealsosayatthesametimethatithasnotlearnttodothem,andneverdidthembefore?"Suchanassertionwouldcontradictthewholeexperienceofmankind."Ihavemetwithnothingduringthethirteenyearssincetheforegoingwaspublishedthathasgivenmeanyqualmsaboutitssoundness.Fromthepointofviewofthelawcourtsandeverydaylifeitis,ofcourse,nonsense;butinthekingdomofthought,asinthatofheaven,therearemanymansions,andwhatwouldbeextravaganceinthecottageorfarmhouse,asitwere,ofdailypractice,isbutcommondecencyinthepalaceofhighphilosophy,whereindwellsevolution.Ifweleaveevolutionalone,wemaysticktocommonpracticeandthelawcourts;touchevolutionandweareinanotherworld;nothigher,notlower,butdifferentasharmonyfromcounterpoint.As,however,inthemostabsolutecounterpointthereisstillharmony,andinthemostabsoluteharmonystillcounterpoint,sohighphilosophyshouldbestillintouchwithcommonsense,andcommonsensewithhighphilosophy.Thecommon-senseviewofthemattertopeoplewhoarenotover-curiousandtowhomtimeismoney,willbethatababyisnotababyuntilitisborn,andthatwhenbornitshouldbeborninwedlock.Nevertheless,asasoptohighphilosophy,everybabyisallowedtobetheoffspringofitsfatherandmother.Thehigh-philosophyviewofthematteristhateveryhumanbeingisstillbutafresheditionoftheprimordialcellwiththelatestadditionsandcorrections;therehasbeennoleapnorbreakincontinuityanywhere;themanofto-dayistheprimordialcellof millionsofyearsagoastrulyasheisthehimselfofyesterday;hecanonlybedeniedtobetheoneongroundsthatwillprovehimnottobetheother.Everyoneisbothhimselfandallhisdirectancestorsanddescendantsaswell;therefore,ifwewouldbelogical,heisonealsowithallhiscousins,nomatterhowdistant,forheandtheyarealikeidenticalwiththeprimordialcell,andwehavealreadynoteditasanaxiomthatthingswhichareidenticalwiththesameareidenticalwithoneanother.Thisispracticallymakinghimonewithalllivingthings,whetheranimalorvegetable,thateverhaveexistedoreverwill--somethingofallwhichmayhavebeeninthemindofSophocleswhenhewrote:-"NorseestthouyetthegatheringhostsofillThatshallen-onetheebothwiththineownselfAndwiththineoffspring."Andallthishascomeofadmittingthatamanmaybethesamepersonfortwodaysrunning!Asforsoppingcommonsenseitwillbeenoughtosaythattheseremarksaretobetakeninastrictlyscientificsense,andhavenoappreciableimportanceasregardslifeandconduct.Truetheydealwiththefoundationsonwhichalllifeandconductarebased,butlikeotherfoundationstheyarehiddenoutofsight,andthesoundertheyare,thelesswetroubleourselvesaboutthem.Whatothermaincommonfeaturesbetweenheredityandmemorymaywenotebesidesthefactthatneithercanexistwithoutthatkindofphysicalcontinuitywhichwecallpersonalidentity?First,thedevelopmentoftheembryoproceedsinanestablishedorder;somustallhabitualactionsbasedonmemory.Disturbthenormalorderandtheperformanceisarrested.Thebetterweknow"GodsavetheQueen,"thelesseasilycanweplayorsingitbackwards.Thereturnofmemoryagaindependsonthereturnofideasassociatedwiththeparticularthingthatisremembered--weremembernothingbutforthepresenceofthese,andwhenenoughofthesearepresentedtousweremembereverything.So,ifthedevelopmentofanembryoisduetomemory,weshouldsupposethememoryoftheimpregnateovumtorevertnottoyesterday,whenitwasinthepersonsofitsparents,buttothelastoccasiononwhichitwasanimpregnateovum.Thereturnoftheoldenvironmentandthepresenceofoldassociationswouldatonceinvolverecollectionofthecoursethatshouldbenexttaken,andthesameshouldhappenthroughoutthe wholecourseofdevelopment.Theactualcourseofdevelopmentpresentspreciselythephenomenaagreeablewiththis.ForfullertreatmentofthispointImustreferthereadertothechapterontheabeyanceofmemoryinmybook"LifeandHabit,"alreadyreferredto.Secondly,werememberbestourlastfewperformancesofanygivenkind,soourpresentperformancewillprobablyresemblesomeoneorotherofthese;werememberourearlierperformancesbywayofresiduumonly,buteverynowandthenwereverttoanearlierhabit.Thisfeatureofmemoryismanifestedinhereditybythewayinwhichoffspringcommonlyresemblesmostitsnearerancestors,butsometimesrevertstoearlierones.Brothersandsisters,eachasitweregivingtheirownversionofthesamestory,butindifferentwords,shouldgenerallyresembleeachothermorecloselythanmoredistantrelations.Andthisiswhatactuallywefind.Thirdly,theintroductionofslightlynewelementsintoamethodalreadyestablishedvariesitbeneficially;thenewissoonfusedwiththeold,andthemonotonyceasestobeoppressive.Butifthenewbetooforeign,wecannotfusetheoldandthenew--natureseemingtohateequallytoowideadeviationfromordinarypracticeandnoneatall.Thisfactreappearsinheredityasthebeneficialeffectsofoccasionalcrossingontheonehand,andontheother,inthegenerallyobservedsterilityofhybrids.Ifhereditybeanaffairofmemory,howcananembryo,sayofamule,beexpectedtobuildupamuleonthestrengthofbuttwomule-memories?Hybridismcausesafaultinthechainofmemory,anditistothiscausethattheusualsterilityofhybridsmustbereferred.Fourthly,itrequiresmanyrepeatedimpressionstofixamethodfirmly,butwhenithasbeenengrainedintousweceasetohavemuchrecollectionofthemannerinwhichitcametobeso,orindeedofanyindividualrepetition,butsometimesasingleimpression,ifprolongedaswellasprofound,producesalastingimpressionandisliabletoreturnwithsuddenforce,andthentogoonreturningtousatintervals.Asageneralrule,however,abnormalimpressionscannotlongholdtheirownagainsttheoverwhelmingpreponderanceofnormalauthority.Thisappearsinheredityasthenormalnon-inheritanceofmutilationsontheonehand,andontheotherastheiroccasionalinheritanceinthecaseofinjuriesfollowedbydisease.Fifthly,ifheredityandmemoryareessentiallythesame,weshould expectthatnoanimalwoulddevelopnewstructuresofimportanceaftertheageatwhichitsspeciesbeginsordinarilytocontinueitsrace;forwecannotsupposeoffspringtorememberanythingthathappenstotheparentsubsequentlytotheparent"sceasingtocontaintheoffspringwithinitself.Fromtheaverageage,therefore,ofreproduction,offspringshouldceasetohaveanyfarthersteady,continuousmemorytofallbackupon;whatmemorythereisshouldbefulloffaults,andassuchunreliable.Anorganismoughttodevelopaslongasitisbackedbymemory--thatistosay,untiltheaverageageatwhichreproductionbegins;itshouldthencontinuetogoforatimeontheimpetusalreadyreceived,andshouldeventuallydecaythroughfailureofanymemorytosupportit,andtellitwhattodo.Thiscorrespondsabsolutelywithwhatweobserveinorganismsgenerally,andexplains,ontheonehand,whytheageofpubertymarksthebeginningofcompleteddevelopment--ariddlehithertonotonlyunexplainedbut,sofarasIhaveseen,unasked;itexplains,ontheotherhand,thephenomenaofoldage--hithertowithoutevenattemptatexplanation.Sixthly,thoseorganismsthatarethelongestinreachingmaturityshouldontheaveragebethelongest-lived,fortheywillhavereceivedthemostmomentousimpulsefromtheweightofmemorybehindthem.Thisharmoniseswiththelatestopinionastothefacts.InhisarticleonWeismannintheContemporaryReviewforMay1890,Mr.Romaneswrites:"ProfessorWeismannhasshownthatthereisthroughoutthemetazoaageneralcorrelationbetweenthenaturallifetimeofindividualscomposinganygivenspecies,andtheageatwhichtheyreachmaturityorfirstbecomecapableofprocreation."This,Ibelieve,hasbeentheconclusiongenerallyarrivedatbybiologistsforsomeyearspast.Lateness,then,intheaverageageofreproductionappearstobetheprincipleunderlyinglongevity.Theredoesnotappearatfirstsighttobemuchconnectionbetweensuchdistinctandapparentlydisconnectedphenomenaas1,theorderlynormalprogressofdevelopment;2,atavismandtheresumptionofferalcharacteristics;3,themoreordinaryresemblanceinterseofnearerrelatives;4,thebenefitofanoccasionalcross,andtheusualsterilityofhybrids;5,theunconsciousnesswithwhichalikebodilydevelopmentandordinaryphysiologicalfunctionsproceed,solongastheyarenormal;6,theordinarynon-inheritance,butoccasionalinheritanceofmutilations;7,thefactthatpubertyindicatestheapproachofmaturity;8,thephenomenaofmiddlelifeandoldage;9,theprincipleunderlyinglongevity.Thesephenomenahavenoconceivable bearingononeanotheruntilheredityandmemoryareregardedaspartofthesamestory.Identifythesetwothings,andIknownophenomenonofhereditythatdoesnotimmediatelybecomeinfinitelymoreintelligible.Isitconceivablethatatheorywhichharmonisessomanyfactshithertoregardedaswithouteitherconnectionorexplanationshouldnotdeserveatanyrateconsiderationfromthosewhoprofesstotakeaninterestinbiology?Itisnotasthoughthetheorywereunknown,orhadbeencondemnedbyourleadingmenofscience.ProfessorRayLankesterintroducedittoEnglishreadersinanappreciativenoticeofProfessorHering"saddress,whichappearedinNature,July18,1876.HewrotetotheAthenaeum,March24,1884,andclaimedcreditforhavingdoneso,butIdonotbelievehehaseversaidmoreinpublicaboutitthanwhatIhaveherereferredto.Mr.RomanesdidindeedtrytocrushitinNature,January27,1881,butin1883,inhis"MentalEvolutioninAnimals,"headopteditsmainconclusionwithoutacknowledgment.TheAthenaeum,tomyunboundedsurprise,calledhimtotaskforthis(March1,1884),andsincethattimehehasgiventheHeringiantheoryasufficientlywideberth.Mr.Wallaceshowedhimselffavourablyenoughdisposedtowardstheviewthatheredityandmemoryarepartofthesamestorywhenhereviewedmybook"LifeandHabit"inNature,March27,1879,buthehasneversincebetrayedanysignofbeingawarethatsuchatheoryexisted.Mr.HerbertSpencerwrotetotheAthenaeum(April5,1884),andclaimedthetheoryforhimself,but,inspiteofhisdoingthis,hehasnever,thatIhaveseen,referredtothematteragain.Ihavedealtsufficientlywithhisclaiminmybook,"LuckorCunning."{43}Lastly,ProfessorHeringhimselfhasneverthatIknowoftouchedhisowntheorysincethesingleshortaddressreadin1870,andtranslatedbymein1881.Everyone,evenitsoriginator,exceptmyself,seemsafraidtoopenhismouthaboutit.OfcoursetheinferencesuggestsitselfthatotherpeoplehavemoresensethanIhave.Ireadilyadmitit;butwhyhavesomanyofourleadersshownsuchastronghankeringafterthetheory,ifthereisnothinginit?ThedeadlockthatIhavepointedoutasexistinginDarwinismwill,Idoubtnot,leaderelongtoaconsiderationofProfessorHering"stheory.EnglishbiologistsarelittlelikelytofindWeismannsatisfactoryforlong,andifhebreaksdownthereisnothingleftforthembutLamarck,supplementedbytheimportantandelucidatorycorollaryonhistheoryproposedbyProfessorHering.Whenthetimearrivesforthistoobtainahearingitwillbeconfirmed,doubtless,byargumentsclearerandmoreforciblethananyIhave beenabletoadduce;IshallthenbedelightedtoresignthechampionshipwhichtillthenIshallcontinue,asforsomeyearspast,tohavemuchpleasureinsustaining.Heretoforemysatisfactionhasmainlylaininthefactthatmoreofourprominentmenofsciencehaveseemedanxioustoclaimthetheorythantorefuteit;intheconfidencethusengenderedIleaveittoanyfullerconsiderationwhichtheoutlineIhaveabovegivenmayinclinethereadertobestowuponit.Footnotes:{1}PublishedintheUniversalReview,July1888.{2}PublishedintheUniversalReview,December1890.{3}PublishedintheUniversalReview,May1889.AsIhaveseveraltimesbeenaskedifthelettersherereprintedwerenotfabricatedbyButlerhimself,Itakethisopportunityofstatingthattheyareauthenticineveryparticular,andthattheoriginalsarenowinmypossession.--R.A.S.{4}AnaddressdeliveredattheSomervilleClub,February27,1895.{5}"TheFoundationsofBelief,"bytheRightHon.A.J.Balfour.Longmans,1895,p.48.{6}PublishedintheUniversalReview,November1888.{7}SincethisessaywaswrittenithasbeenascertainedbyCavaliereFrancescoNegri,ofCasaleMonferrato,thatTabachettidiedin1615.If,therefore,theSanctuaryofMontrigonewasnotfoundeduntil1631,itisplainthatTabachetticannothaveworkedthere.AllthelatestdiscoveriesaboutTabachetti"scareerwillbefoundinCavaliereNegri"spamphlet"IlSantuariodiCrea"(Alessandria,1902).Seealsonoteonp.154.--R.A.S.{8}PublishedintheUniversalReview,December1889. {9}Longmans&Co.,1890.{10}Longmans&Co.,1890.{11}PublishedintheUniversalReview,November1890.{12}Longmans&Co.,1890.{13}M.Ruppen"swordsrun:"1687wurdedieKapellezurhohenStiegegebaut,1747durchZusatzvergrossertund1755mitOrgelnausgestattet.AntonRuppen,eingeschickterSteinhauermidMaurermeisterleitetedenKapellebau,undmachtedarindaskleinereAltarlein.BeiderhohenStiegewarfruherkeinGebetshauslein;nureinwunderthatigesBildleinderMutterGottesstanddaineinerMauervordemfrommeHirtenundvielandachtigesVolkunterfreiemHimmelbeteten."1709wurdendiekleinenKapelleleindie15GeheimnissedesPsaltersvorstellandaufdemWegezurhohenStiegegebaut.JederHaushalterdesViertelsFeeubernahmdenBaueinesdieserGeheimnisskapellen,undeinbesondererGutthaterdieserfrommenUnternehmungwarHeinrichAndenmatten,nachherBruderderGeselischaftJesu."{14}ThestoryofTabachetti"sincarcerationisverydoubtful.CavaliereF.Negri,towhosebookonTabachettiandhisworkatCreaIhavealreadyreferredthereader,doesnotmentionit.TabachettilefthisnativeDinantin1585,andfromthatdateuntilhisdeathin1615heappearstohaveworkedchieflyatVaralloandCrea.Thereisadocumentinexistencestatingthatin1588heexecutedastatueforthehermitageofS.Rocco,atCrea,which,ifitistobereliedon,disposesbothoftheincarcerationandofthevisittoSaas.Itispossible,however,thatthedateis1598,inwhichcaseButler"stheoryofthevisittoSaasmayholdgood.In1590TabachettiwascertainlyatVarallo,andagainin1594,1599,and1602.Hediedin1615,possiblyduringavisittoVarallo,thoughhishomeatthattimewasCostigliole,nearAsti.--R.A.S.{15}ThisisthuschronicledbyM.Ruppen:"1589den9SeptemberwareineWassergrosse,dievielSchadenverursachte.DieThalstrasse,dievondenSteinmattenanbiszurKircheamUferderVisplag,wurdeganzzerstort.ManwardgezwungeneineneueStrasseineinigerEntfernungvomWasserdurcheinenaltenFusswegauszuhauenwelchevierundeinerhalbenViertelderKlafter,oder6Schuhund9Zollbreitsoilte."(p.43). {16}AlecturedeliveredattheWorkingMen"sCollegeinGreatOrmondStreet,March15,1890;rewrittenanddeliveredagainattheSomervilleClub,February13,1894.{17}"CorrelationofForces":Longmans,1874,p.15.{18}"ThreeLecturesontheScienceofLanguage,"Longmans,1889,p.4.{19}"ScienceofThought,"Longmans,1887,p.9.{20}PublishedintheUniversalReview,April,May,andJune1890.{21}"VoyagesoftheAdventureandBeagle,"iii.p.237.{22}"Luck,orCunning,asthemainmeansofOrganicModification?"(Longmans),pp.179,180.{23}JournalsoftheProceedingsoftheLinneanSociety(Zoology,vol.iii.),1859,p.61.{24}"Darwinism"(Macmillan,1889),p.129.{25}Longmans,1890,p.376.{26}SeeNature,March6,1890.{27}"OriginofSpecies,"sixthedition,1888,vol.i.p.168.{28}"OriginofSpecies,"sixthedition,1888,vol.ii.p.261.{29}Mr.J.T.Cunningham,oftheMarineBiologicalLaboratory,Plymouth,hascalledmyattentiontothefactthatIhaveascribedtoProfessorRayLankesteracriticismonMr.Wallace"sremarksupontheeyesofcertainfiat-fish,whichProfessorRayLankesterwas,inreality,onlyadopting--withfullacknowledgment--fromMr.Cunningham.Mr.Cunninghamhasleftittomewhethertocorrectmyomissionpubliclyornot,buthewouldsoplainlyprefermydoingsothatIconsidermyselfboundtoinsertthisnote.CuriouslyenoughIfindthatinmybook"EvolutionOldandNew,"IgavewhatLamarckactuallysaidupontheeyesofflat-fish,andhavingbeenledtoreturntothesubject,Imayaswellquotehiswords.Hewrote:- "Need--alwaysoccasionedbythecircumstancesinwhichananimalisplaced,andfollowedbysustainedeffortsatgratification--cannotonlymodifyanorgan--thatistosay,augmentorreduceit--butcanchangeitspositionwhenthecaserequiresitsremoval."Oceanfisheshaveoccasiontoseewhatisoneithersideofthem,andhavetheireyesaccordinglyplacedoneithersideoftheirhead.Somefishes,however,havetheirabodenearcoastsonsubmarinebanksandinclinations,andarethusforcedtoflattenthemselvesasmuchaspossibleinordertogetasnearastheycantotheshore.Inthissituationtheyreceivemorelightfromabovethanfrombelow,andfinditnecessarytopayattentiontowhateverhappenstobeabovethem;thisneedhasinvolvedthedisplacementoftheireyes,whichnowtaketheremarkablepositionwhichweobserveinthecaseofsoles,turbots,plaice,&c.Thetransferofpositionisnotevenyetcompleteinthecaseofthesefishes,andtheeyesarenot,therefore,symmetricallyplaced;buttheyaresowiththeskate,whoseheadandwholebodyareequallydisposedoneithersidealongitudinalsection.Hencetheeyesofthisfishareplacedsymmetricallyupontheuppermostside."--PhilosophieZoologique,tom.i.,pp.250,251.EditionC.Martins.Paris,1873.{30}"EssaysonHeredity,"&c.,Oxford,1889,p.171.{31}"EssaysonHeredity,"&c.,Oxford,1889,p.266.{32}"Darwinism,"1889,p.440.{33}Page83.{34}Vol.i.p.466,&c.Ed.1885.{35}"Darwinism,"p.440.{36}Longmans,1890.{37}Tom.iv.p.383.Ed.1753.{38}Essays,&c.,p.447.{39}"Zoonomia,"1794,vol.i.p.480.{40}Longmans,1890. {41}Longmans,1890.{42}Longmans,1890.{43}Longmans,1890.End